<text>Zuccaro, family of Italian painters, consisting of two brothers who dominated the Roman Mannerist style in the late 1500s. Taddeo Zuccaro(1529-66), the older brother, created a popular pastiche style derived from Raphael's grand manner, Michelangelo's vigorous monumentality, and the intense color of north Italian painting. He received many commissions for series of large historical frescoes, notably those for the Farnese family and the Vatican. Federico Zuccaro(1542-1609), Taddeo's younger brother, became a prime theorist of Mannerism, both in his writings and his paintings. A more original and talented painter than Taddeo, he created a crowded, complex style of composition that led directly to the baroque of the next century. An artist of international stature, he painted frescoes in the Doge's Palace in Venice (1582), completed unfinished decorations in the Vatican and in the Cathedral of Florence, created altarpieces for the Escorial in Madrid (1585-88), and painted a portrait of Queen Elizabeth I of England (circa 1575). </text>
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<text>Zuccaro</text>
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<text>Zorn, Anders Leonhard (1860-1920), Swedish painter, etcher, and sculptor, born in Mora. An internationalist who worked in Sweden, London, Paris, and the U.S., he had his first popular success in the 1880s and '90s as a portraitist, epitomized in his exuberant Mrs. Gardner in Venice (1894, Gardner Museum, Boston). The influence of impressionism was apparent in his later paintings of peasant life, such as Midsummer Dance (1897, National Museet, Stockholm). During his lifetime he was famous for his vivacious, innocent scenes of bathing peasant girls, as well as for his portraits. His etchings, characterized by short, rapid, parallel strokes, are more spontaneous and impressionistic than his oils. Although not highly regarded during his lifetime, these etchings have come to be regarded as his best work. </text>
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<text>Zorn, Anders Leonhard</text>
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card_167924.xml
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<text>Zorach, William (1887-1966), American sculptor, born in Jurbarkas, Lithuania, and taken to the United States near Cleveland, Ohio, in 1891. He was trained primarily in New York City and in Paris (1910-12), where he adopted cubism. At first a painter, he turned to sculpture in 1917. He applied his cubist style to wood, metal, and especially stone. Eventually he moved away from abstraction toward realistic representation of human and animal forms in a quiet, restrained style influenced by ancient Egyptian and Greek sculpture. Zorach was best known for his simplified human figures, exemplified as in Child with Cat (1926, Museum of Modern Art, New York City) and Mother and Child (1930, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). A later work still in the same style is Cat with Long Whiskers (1966, private collection). Zorach taught for more than 30 years at the Art Students League in New York City. He wrote Art Is My Life (pub. posthumously 1967). </text>
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<text>Zorach, William</text>
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card_167602.xml
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<text> Wyeth, Andrew Newell (1917- ), American painter, noted for his interpretations of the people and the austere rural landscapes of Pennsylvania and Maine. He was born in Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, and was trained by his father, the illustrator and muralist Newell Convers Wyeth (1882-1945). Andrew Wyeth held his first one-man show at the age of 20 and scored an immediate success. His media are chiefly watercolor and tempera; his colors are predominantly subtle shades of brown and gray. In his compositions he displays technical brilliance, realism, and affection for his subjects. Among Wyeth's best-known works are Christina's World (1948, Museum of Modern Art, New York City), Her Room (1963, Farnsworth Museum, Rockland, Me.), and Spring Fed (1967, W. E. Weiss, Jr., Collection). Perhaps the most popular painter of his day, he received the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, and in 1970 he became the first living artist to be accorded an exhibition in the White House. In 1986, 240 previously unknown works, all studies of a woman named Helga, were revealed to the public for the first time. Andrew Wyeth's son, James Browning Wyeth (1946- ), is also an artist. </text>
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<text>Wyeth, Andrew Newell</text>
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card_167174.xml
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<text>Wu Tao-Tzu (circa 700-92), the greatest Chinese painter of the T'ang dynasty. He painted many Buddhist scenes and decorated Buddhist temples in the cities of Ch'ang-an and Luoyang (Lo-yang). His most famous frescoes dealt with the Subjugation of Mara, a popular Buddhist subject. All his work was destroyed in the Buddhist persecution of the 9th century, although unreliable paraphrases by later artists and rubbings of stone copies of his work exist. Wu Tao-tzu is credited in literary sources with a “furious energy of brush,” a vigorous and free style that emphasized space and volume rather than color and detail. He is also credited with the creation of the “thick and thin line” in brushwork, giving the artist far greater powers of expression. </text>
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<text>Wu Tao-Tzu</text>
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<text>Wilson, Richard (1714-82), Welsh landscape painter, who introduced the European neoclassical style into British landscape painting. He was influenced, during a stay in Italy in the 1750s, by the calm, idealized classicism of the French landscapist Claude Lorrain. Wilson evolved a style of generalized grandeur that he applied to scenes of English country houses and to vistas such as Snowdon (circa 1770, Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool). His paintings are noted for their effects of light and for the creation of a feeling of great spatial depth. His realistic sense of detail influenced later English landscapists such as John Constable and J. M. W. Turner. </text>
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<text>Wilson, Richard</text>
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card_166326.xml
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<text>Whistler, James Abbott McNeill (1834-1903), American painter and etcher, who assimilated Japanese art styles, made technical innovations, and championed modern art. Many regard him as preeminent among etchers. Whistler was born on July 10, 1834, in Lowell, Massachusetts. He entered the U.S. Military Academy in 1851, did not do well in his studies, and left in 1854 to take a job as a draftsman with the U.S. Coast Survey. One year later he left the U.S., never to return, and went to Paris, where he became a pupil of the Swiss classicist painter Charles Gabriel Gleyre (1808-74). Formal instruction influenced him less, however, than his acquaintance with the French realist painter Gustave Courbet, other leading contemporary artists, and his own study of the great masters and of Japanese. In Paris Whistler won recognition as an etcher, when his first series of etchings, Twelve Etchings from Nature (commonly called The French Set), appeared in 1858. Soon after he moved to London, where his paintings, hitherto rejected repeatedly by the galleries of Paris, found acceptance. At the Piano was shown by the Royal Academy of London in 1860. In 1863 The White Girl (National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.) won great acclaim in Paris. Thereafter exhibitions of his work aroused increasing international interest, as did his flamboyantly eccentric personality. Three of Whistler's best-known portraits, Arrangement in Black and Grey No. 1: The Artist's Mother (Louvre, Paris), Arrangement in Grey and Black No. 1: Thomas Carlyle (City Art Gallery and Museum, Glasgow), and Harmony in Grey and Green: Miss Cicely Alexander (Tate Gallery, London) were painted in 1872. In 1877 he exhibited a number of landscapes done in the Japanese manner; these paintings, which he called nocturnes, outraged conservative art opinion, which did not understand his avoidance of narrative detail, his layers of atmospheric color, and his belief in art for art's sake. The English art critic John Ruskin wrote a caustically critical article, and Whistler, charging slander, sued Ruskin for damages. He won the case, one of the most celebrated of its kind, but the expense of the trial forced him into bankruptcy. Selling the contents of his studio, Whistler left England, worked intensively for a year (1879-80) in Venice, then returned to England and resumed his attack on the academic art tradition. In later years Whistler devoted himself increasingly to etching, drypoint, lithography, and interior decoration. The Thames series (1860), the First Venice series (1880), and the Second Venice series (1881) heightened his standing as an etcher and won him success when exhibited in London in 1881 and in 1883. The Peacock Room, which he painted for a private London residence (begun 1876 and moved in 1919 to the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.), is the most noteworthy example of his interior decoration. Toward the end of his life, living in Paris, Whistler came to be regarded as a major artist. He died in London on July 17, 1903. </text>
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<text>Whistler, James Abbott McNeill</text>
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card_166027.xml
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<text>Weyden, Rogier van der (circa 1399-1464), the leading Flemish painter of the mid-15th century, known principally for his sensitive, deeply moving renderings of religious themes. Rogier was born in Tournai, Flanders (now in Belgium), about 1399; although details of his early training are sketchy, it is generally accepted that he entered the workshop of the painter Robert Campin in Tournai in 1427 and became a licensed master in 1432. In 1435 he was appointed the official painter of the city of Bruges (now in Belgium), where he spent most of the rest of his life. His many paintings—primarily such religious works as altarpieces, but also including portraits—are undated and unsigned, and the chronology of his career rests almost entirely on stylistic analysis. Rogier's paintings, like those of other contemporary Netherlandish masters (particularly those of Jan van Eyck), are precise and highly detailed, although Rogier during his career moved toward a new technique of light and shadow that emphasized the central figure of the painting while subduing other elements. His early works, before 1430, present scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary, as in the Annunciation (circa 1425, Prado, Madrid); these paintings closely resemble those of his master Campin but exhibit greater emotional and dramatic intensity than Campin achieved. Rogier's mature works, between 1430 and 1450, show an increasing interest in the theme of Christ's passion. They are characterized by cold colors, by rhythmic elongated lines (particularly evident in fluttering robes and draperies), by the elegant mannered poses of the figures, and especially by a tragic religious intensity that reached a peak in three versions of the crucifixion (circa 1440). Rogier introduced several important innovations that influenced later Netherlandish painting, such as the use of gilt backgrounds, as in the Descent from the Cross (Prado); confined architectural settings that defined the space of the scene, as in Standing Virgin (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna); and the device of placing a rear-view figure in the painting's foreground in order to create a closed, unified pattern, as in Marriage of the Virgin (Prado). After 1450, following a trip to Italy, where Rogier was exposed to the painting of the Italian Renaissance, his work became softer, more realistically human and less mystically intense, particularly in such late masterpieces as Adoration of the Magi (Alte Pinakothek, Munich). Rogier was one of the most influential north European 15th-century painters not only in the Netherlands but also in Spain, Italy, France, and Germany, to which many of his commissioned paintings were sent. He died in Brussels on June 16, 1464. </text>
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<text>Weyden, Rogier van der</text>
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<text>Weston, Edward (1886-1958), American photographer, born in Highland Park, Illinois, one of the first to enjoy the acceptance of photography as an art form. He began his career as a portraitist, turning out elegant, soft-focus studio photographs. After seeing abstract paintings for the first time at the 1915 San Francisco Panama Pacific Exhibition, however, he decided to try to capture the physical quality of the objects he photographed with the sharpest truthfulness and exactitude. He often used extreme close-ups to create a semiabstract quality, as in his famous studies of green peppers. Weston was principally concerned with the world of nature. He made important series of photographs of such subjects as seashells, tree stumps, eroded rocks, and landscapes, as well as vegetables. He also photographed female nudes. His 1936 photographs of undulating California sand dunes are sometimes considered his greatest works. </text>
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<text>Weston, Edward</text>
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card_165486.xml
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<text>West, Benjamin (1738-1820), American painter of historical scenes and portraits, who was one of the leading artists of his time. He was born in Springfield (now Swarthmore), Pennsylvania, and was largely self-taught. He painted portraits in Philadelphia from 1746 to 1759. He went to Italy in 1759 and acquired a classical style of painting by copying the works of such Italian masters as Titian and Raphael. In 1763 West moved to England, where he soon gained the friendship of the English portraitist Sir Joshua Reynolds and the patronage of King George III, who commissioned him to execute portraits of members of the royal family and, in 1772, appointed him historical painter to the court. West was a founder, in 1768, of the Royal Academy of Arts and on Reynolds's death in 1792 succeeded him to the presidency. He became a leader of the developing realistic movement when his painting The Death of Wolfe (1771, National Gallery, Ottawa) broke the usual tradition of depicting soldiers in contemporary battle scenes wearing Greco-Roman costumes. West encouraged and influenced many young American painters who studied under him in London, among them Gilbert Charles Stuart and John Singleton Copley. Examples of his work include Penn's Treaty with the Indians (1772, Independence Hall, Philadelphia) and Death on a Pale Horse (1802, Philadelphia Museum of Art). </text>
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<text>West, Benjamin</text>
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card_165122.xml
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<text>Wen Cheng-Ming (1470-1559), Chinese landscape painter of the Ming dynasty, who was one of the greatest and most influential scholar-gentleman artists (wen-jen) of the Southern Ming style. A pupil of Shen Chou (1427-1509), founder of the Wu school of painting, he attempted to recapture the achievements of the Four Great Masters of the older (14th century) Yüan tradition. In Tea Under the Trees (National Palace Museum, Formosa), he skillfully combined subtle ink washes with small sharp brushstrokes to create an elegant evocation of trees, rocks, and mountains. In his mature late style, Wen painted Old Trees by a Cold Waterfall (1549, National Palace Museum), a hanging scroll depicting a high waterfall surrounded by enormous gnarled trees; the trees dominate the picture and were painted with obsessive attention to their twisted, clawlike trunks and branches. This highly detailed style had an enormous influence on Wen's followers and was imitated for several centuries. </text>
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<text>Wen Cheng-Ming</text>
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<text>Wedgwood, Josiah (1730-95), English potter, whose works are among the finest examples of ceramic art. Wedgwood was born in Burslem, Staffordshire, on July 12, 1730, into a family with a long tradition as potters. At the age of nine, after the death of his father, he worked in his family's pottery. In 1759 he set up his own pottery works in Burslem. There he produced a highly durable cream-colored earthenware that so pleased Queen Charlotte Sophia that in 1762 she appointed him royal supplier of dinnerware. From the public sale of queen's ware, Wedgwood was able, in 1768, to build near Stoke-on-Trent a village, which he named Etruria, and a second factory equipped with tools and ovens of his own design. At first only ornamental pottery was made in Etruria, but by 1773 Wedgwood had concentrated all his production facilities there. During his long career Wedgwood developed revolutionary ceramic materials, notably basalt and jasperware. Wedgwood's basalt, a hard, black, stonelike material known also as Egyptian ware or basaltes ware, was used for vases, candlesticks, and realistic busts of historical figures. Jasperware, his most successful innovation, was a durable unglazed porcelain most characteristically blue with fine white cameo figures inspired by the ancient Roman Portland Vase. Many of the finest designs were the work of the British artist John Flaxman. After Wedgwood's death in Etruria on January 3, 1795, his descendants carried on the business, which still produces many of his designs. Wedgwood was the grandfather of the British naturalist Charles Darwin. </text>
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<text>Wedgwood, Josiah</text>
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<text>Watts, George Frederic (1817-1904), English painter and sculptor, who painted about 300 portraits, including those of the Italian patriot Giuseppe Garibaldi and the English poets Robert Browning and Alfred Lord Tennyson. He was born in London and largely self-taught. In 1843 he went to Italy, where he studied for three years. He was a member of the Royal Academy in London and received many prizes and honors throughout his lifetime. An example of his sermonizing, allegorical paintings is Hope (1886, Tate Gallery, London). Among Watts's best-known sculptures is the huge equestrian statue of the South African statesman Cecil John Rhodes in Kensington Gardens, London. </text>
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<text>Watts, George Frederic</text>
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card_163926.xml
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<text> Watteau, (Jean) Antoine (1684-1721), French painter, who is regarded as one of the outstanding artists of the rococo period and as a forerunner of 19th-century impressionism. Watteau was born on October 10, 1684, in Valenciennes, a Flemish town that had become French shortly before his birth. At the age of 14 he began to study under an obscure painter of religious subjects in his native town. In 1702 he went to Paris, where he eked out a living as a painter for a dealer in cheap devotional pictures. He later studied under the French engraver and stage designer Claude Gillot (1673-1722), from whom he gained an interest in the character of the fashionable Italian commedia dell'arte. About 1708 Watteau began to work with the decorative artist Claude Audran (1658-1734), curator of the Luxembourg Palace collections. There he had an opportunity to study a great series of baroque paintings by the Flemish master Peter Paul Rubens. In 1709 Watteau placed second in the competition for the Prix de Rome and thereafter received many important commissions. Named an associate of the French Academy in Paris in 1712, he was elected to full membership in 1717. Watteau, who had a frail constitution and was often ill, succumbed to tuberculosis. He died in Nogent-sur-Marne on July 18, 1721. Watteau's canvases reflect the influence of the great Flemish painters, particularly Rubens, and of the Venetian school of painting. His own distinctive style, however, demonstrated a feeling for light and color and offered a delicate sensuousness and lyric grace that had been previously unexplored. Other rococo painters imitated Watteau's style, but they failed to achieve the dreamlike quality of his paintings. Watteau's reputation declined with the rise of neoclassicism in French art, but after the French Revolution, and especially in the romantic period, it rose again. Among Watteau's favorite subjects were fashionable outdoor gatherings, known as fêtes galantes (French, “scenes of gallantry”), in which elegant court ladies and gentlemen pass their time in pleasant dalliance among trees and shrubbery. His masterpiece in this category is Embarquement pour Cythère (1717, Louvre, Paris). Another favorite subject was clowns, harlequins, and other figures from the commedia dell'arte, such as Harlequin and Columbine (1715, Wallace Collection, London) and The Italian Comedians (probably 1720), National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.. L'Enseigne de Gersaint (1720, Staatliche Museen, Berlin), a signboard painted for the shop of an art dealer and friend of Watteau, is a masterpiece of genre realism in its composition and drawing. Its use of color influenced 19th-century impressionism. </text>
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<text>Watteau, Antoine</text>
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<text> Warhol, Andy (1928-87), American painter and filmmaker, who was a leader of the pop art movement. He was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and educated at Carnegie Institute of Technology, and he practiced commercial art in New York City. He attracted attention in the 1960s with exhibitions of pop art objects from daily life, such as Campbell's Soup Can (1965, Leo Castelli Gallery, New York City) and Green Coca-Cola Bottles (1962, Whitney Museum, New York City), and of entertainers like Marilyn Monroe (1962, Mr. and Mrs. Burton Tremaine Collection). These images were silk-screened, a mechanical process that allowed them to be endlessly repeated. Warhol took a similar impersonal approach in his experimental underground films, such as The Chelsea Girls (1966), a seven-hour, virtually unedited semidocumentary. Later, more complex films, such as Lonesome Cowboys (1969) and Trash (1970), are also marked by improvised dialogue, lack of plot, and extreme eroticism. Among Warhol's publications are The Philosophy of Andy Warhol: From A to B and Back Again (1975) and America (1985), a collection of his scathing photographs of contemporary life in the U.S. From 1969 until his death, he published Interview, a monthly magazine with illustrated articles about current celebrities. </text>
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<text>Warhol, Andy</text>
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<text>Wang Wei (699-759), Chinese painter and poet, a figure of legendary stature; Wang is considered the founder of the pure landscape style of painting and was one of the masters of lyric verse in the T'ang dynasty. Wang's poems, which are preserved, are admired for their sensitivity to nature. His work as an artist is known only in a few inadequate rubbings taken from stone engravings of his famous Wang-ch'uan hand scroll and in paraphrases of his paintings by later artists (such as the Landscape in the Academy of Arts, Honolulu, Hawaii). Most information about his significance as a painter comes from literary sources. He is believed to have been the first painter to treat landscape as an evocation of nature rather than as a vehicle for colorful, artificial decorations, which was the accepted manner of his day. He regarded landscape painting as an intimate communion with nature and is credited with the statement, “When you paint a landscape, it is more important to use your instinct than your brush.” Wang is also credited with several far-reaching technical innovations—notably, the monochromatic ink style, which depended for its effect solely on a stringent and expressive use of black or gray ink washes and multiple small brushstrokes. A scholar-poet who withdrew from society to paint, he was considered by later Chinese art historians to be the founder of the Southern School of Chinese art and became the model for the later literati (wen-jen) artist, or unworldly poet-painter. </text>
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<text>Wang Wei</text>
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<text>Wang Mêng (circa 1310-85), Chinese landscape painter, who was one of the traditional Four Great Landscape Masters of the Yüan dynasty. A typical wen-jen painter—a literary amateur who practiced painting as an avocation rather than a profession—he was probably the most brilliant and influential of the Yüan masters. His technique exhibits mastery of all the various brushstrokes of the period, and his exhilarated use of overlapping strokes created dense, crowded landscapes with a wealth of detail. His compositions abound in monumental mountains, tortuous paths, and writhing trees, all pointing to a powerful climactic focal point, as in Landscape with Waterfall (National Palace Museum, Formosa). They represent idealized inner visions rather than actual scenes in nature. He exercised a prime influence on wen-jen painting from the 15th to the 19th century. </text>
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<text>Wang Meng</text>
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<text>Wang Hui (1632-1720), Chinese landscape artist, the most important of the painters known as the Four Wangs, who dominated Chinese art in the late Ming and early Ch'ing periods. His work represents the last flowering of the traditional wen-jen artist—the literary scholar who was an amateur of painting. Orthodox in his emulation of earlier painters, he was versatile and prolific, but not particularly original; in his eclectic style he borrowed from many sources, particularly from the original wen-jen, the so-called Four Great Landscape Masters of the centuries-old Yüan dynasty. His brushwork was spontaneous, competent, and at times unemotional; the complexity and sheer volume of the brushwork in his large-scale paintings—such as Countless Peaks and Valleys (undated, Sun Yat-sen Museum, Taiwan)—can be overwhelming. He was the most famous painter of his day, but his work represented the end of a tradition rather than the beginning of a new one.</text>
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<text>Wang Hui</text>
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<text>Vouet, Simon (1590-1649), French portraitist and decorative painter, who brought Italian influences to French baroque painting. Vouet evolved a calm, monumental style that combined the Mannerist composition and manipulation of light used by the Italian master Caravaggio with elements of the more restrained baroque style of Rome. As court painter of Louis XIII of France, he executed portraits and supervised schemes for the decoration of Parisian palaces and churches. His work in the mature French baroque style is eclipsed by that of his contemporary, the French painter Nicolas Poussin, but through his pupil Charles Le Brun, Vouet influenced the French baroque style as it matured under Louis XIV at Versailles. </text>
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<text>Vouet, Simon</text>
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<text>Vivarini, family of Venetian painters of the mid- and late 15th century. Their work represents a transition from the traditional stylized Gothic- and Byzantine-inspired school to the more realistic Renaissance-influenced manner of the 1500s. The brothers Antonio Vivarini (circa 1415-c. 1480) and Bartolomeo Vivarini (circa 1432-c. 1499) collaborated on religious polyptychs with linear, often stiff figures and vertical architectural backgrounds, all enclosed in ornate gilded frames. Alvise Vivarini (circa 1446-c. 1505), son of Antonio, painted somewhat more rounded, solid human figures, and became a specialist in the crystalline, luminous style that dominated Venetian painting about 1500. </text>
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<text>Vivarini</text>
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<text>Vischer, Peter, the Elder (circa 1460-1529), German sculptor and bronze founder, whose works mark the transition in German sculpture from the Gothic style. He was born in Nuremberg and trained by his father, the sculptor Hermann Vischer the Elder (died 1488). Hermann had established (1453) a brass foundry at Nuremberg, which Peter continued after his father's death. Peter's monumental brass productions increased the reputation of the foundry to such a degree that, until it closed in 1550, it was practically unrivaled in Germany. Peter's four sons Hermann (1486-1517), Peter (1487-1528), Paul, (flourished 1507-31), and Hans (1489-1550) assisted him. Peter Vischer's most important monument in the Gothic style is the Tomb of the Archbishop Ernst (1495) in Magdeburg Cathedral, its elaborate base decorated with statues of the apostles. The Renaissance influence is most evident in the classically elegant drapery and nudity of the minor figures in his masterpiece, the Shrine of St. Sebald (1508-19) in the Church of Saint Sebald at Nuremberg. Its Gothic canopy and rich decoration proclaim his skill in bronze casting. Another outstanding work is the Tomb of Maximilian (Hofkirch, Innsbruck), which includes large, freestanding armored figures of the semilegendary King Arthur of Britain and the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. </text>
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<text>Vischer, Peter, the Elder</text>
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<text>Viking Art, pre-Christian Scand inavian art of the period c. AD 800-c. 1050, when northern Europe was dominated by the powerful seafaring Vikings. Viking remains have been found principally in Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, but also in Finland, England, and northern France.The main sources of Viking artifacts are burial chambers and grave sites. Chieftains were buried in large graves containing lavishly ornamented swords, axes, sleighs, carts, beds, and other objects. In Norway, chiefs were often buried in actual wooden ships, as at Oseberg and Gokstad. The principal Viking motifs were animals—especially horses, snakes, swans, and dragons—with which all burial objects, including the ships themselves, were finely carved. The carving is vigorous but delicate, emphasizing long sinuous curves and intertwining geometric designs. Gold- and silverwork, which decorates objects such as sword handles, is done in the same spidery filigree style.Besides burial objects, the other two principal forms of Viking art are jewelry and runic stones. Jewelry was usually of silver, occasionally of gold, and included medallions, pendants, pins, and clasps, all featuring intricate metalwork or filigree decoration; braided necklaces of spun silver wires were the most technically accomplished pieces. Runic stones were limestone blocks carved in relief with elegant inscriptions in runes (q.v.) and with designs commemorating special events, heroic chieftains, or legendary exploits.</text>
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<text>Viking Art</text>
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<text>Verrocchio, Andrea del, real name Andrea di Michele di Francesco di Cioni (1435-88), Florentine sculptor and painter, who is ranked second only to Donatello among the Italian sculptors of the early Renaissance. He was born in Florence and, according to tradition, was trained in that city as a goldsmith, with Giuliano Verrocchio, whose name he supposedly adopted as his own; as a sculptor, with Donatello; and as a painter, with Alesso Baldovinetti. Later Verrocchio conducted a large academy in Florence that became the principal center of the arts. Among his pupils were Leonardo, Botticelli, Lorenzo di Credi, and Perugino. Verrocchio's bronze equestrian statue of the Venetian condottiere Bartolomeo Colleoni (1400-75), which stands in the Campo dei Santi Giovanni e Paolo in Venice, is notable for the impression it creates of nobility and power and for the consummate mastery of the anatomical and technical problems involved. Verrocchio completed only the clay model for this work, which was cast after his death by the Venetian sculptor Alessandro Leopardi (circa 1466-1522). Other major bronze sculptures include David (1470-72, Museo Nazionale, Florence) and Boy with a Dolphin (1476?, for a fountain in the courtyard of the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence). Most of the paintings once attributed to Verrocchio probably were executed by his pupils after his designs. The few paintings that exhibit his personal style are distinguished by firm drawing and modeling and enamel-like color. His landscapes particularly reveal him as a pioneer in the rendition of atmospheric perspective. Among his principal paintings are Baptism of Christ (1470, Uffizi, Florence) and several versions of the Madonna and Child (National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., and Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City). Recent studies of the Baptism of Christ have confirmed that one of the angels and part of the background are the work of Leonardo. </text>
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<text>Verrocchio, Andrea del</text>
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card_161000.xml
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<text> Vermeer, Jan (1632-75), Dutch painter, who excelled in portraying comfortable interior scenes that are composed with mathematical clarity and suffused with cool, silvery light. Vermeer, also called Jan van der Meer van Delft, was born in Delft and baptized on October 31, 1632. After serving a 6-year apprenticeship, part of it probably under the Dutch painter Carel Fabritius, he was admitted in 1653 to the guild of Saint Luke of Delft as a master painter. An important member of the guild, he served four terms on its board of governors and appears to have been well known to his contemporaries. He made a modest living as an art dealer rather than as a painter. Only 35 of Vermeer's canvases have survived, and none appears to have been sold. Their small number is the result of Vermeer's deliberate, methodical work habits, comparatively short life, and the disappearance of many of his paintings during the period of obscurity following his death in Delft on December 15, 1675. With a few exceptions, including some landscapes, street scenes, and portraits, Vermeer painted sunlit domestic interiors in which one or two figures are shown engaged in reading, writing, or playing musical instruments. These objectively observed, precisely executed genre paintings of 17th-century Dutch life are characterized by a geometrical sense of order. Vermeer was a master of composition and in the representation of space. He arranged tonal values and perspective over the foreground, into the middleground, and farther into the distance in such works as Girl Asleep at a Table (circa 1656, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City). In Maidservant Pouring Milk (1660, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam), Woman with a Water Jug (1663, Metropolitan Museum), View of Delft (circa 1660, Mauritshuis, The Hague), and other works, he recorded the effects of light with a subtlety, delicacy, and purity of color that probably never have been surpassed. Among his paintings are Soldier and Laughing Girl (1657, Frick Collection, New York City), and Girl with a Red Hat (1667, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.). Vermeer was forgotten after his death and not rediscovered until the late 19th century. His reputation steadily increased thereafter. He is today considered one of the greatest Dutch painters. His work was forged for a time and sold to the Germans during World War II. </text>
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<text>Velde, van de, family of Dutch marine painters and landscapists of the 17th century. Esaias van de Velde(circa 1590-1630) helped establish the Dutch school of realistic landscape painting. His use of composition and color in works such as Dune Landscape (1629, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam) were especially influential. Willem van de Velde the Elder(circa 1611-93), Esaias's brother, specialized in meticulous black-and-white (grisaille) pictures of ships and naval battles; he was employed by the English kings Charles II and James II. Willem van de Velde the Younger(1633-1707), Willem's son, became one of the greatest Dutch marine painters. He was retained by Charles II to paint naval battles—one of his best portrayals in this genre is the smoke-enveloped Cannon Shot (circa 1660, Rijksmuseum)—but he preferred scenes of ships on a calm sea. In paintings notable for their evocation of light and atmosphere, he portrayed ships with the same attention to detail and stylish elegance that contemporary Dutch portraitists conferred on human subjects. Adriaen van de Velde(1636-72), brother of Willem the Younger, was a prolific painter of sunny, atmospheric landscapes and beach scenes. His landscape etchings of rural scenes were particularly sensitive, but he also excelled in animal painting and often executed the animal figures in the paintings of other prominent contemporary artists. </text>
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<text>Velázquez, Diego Rodríguez de Silva y (1599-1660), Spanish painter, the country's greatest baroque artist, who, with Francisco de Goya and El Greco, forms the great triumvirate of Spanish painting. Velázquez was born in Seville on June 6, 1599, the oldest of six children; both his parents were from the minor nobility. Between 1611 and 1617 the young Velázquez worked as an apprentice to Francisco Pacheco (1564-1654), a Sevillian Mannerist painter who was also the author of an important treatise, El arte de la pintura (The Art of Painting, 1649), and who became Velázquez's father-in-law. During his student years Velázquez absorbed the most popular contemporaneous styles of painting, derived, in part, from both Flemish and Italian realism. Youthful Works Many of his earliest paintings show a strong naturalist bias, as does The Meal (circa 1617, Hermitage, Saint Petersburg), which may have been his first work as an independent master after passing the examination of the Guild of Saint Luke. This painting belongs to the first of three categories—the bodegón, or kitchen piece, along with portraits and religious scenes—into which his youthful works, executed between about 1617 and 1623, may be placed. In his kitchen pieces, a few figures are combined with studied still-life objects, as in Water Seller of Seville (circa 1619-20, Wellington Museum, London). The masterly effects of light and shadow, as well as the direct observation of nature, make inevitable a comparison with the work of the Italian painter Caravaggio. Velázquez's religious paintings, images of simple piety, portray models drawn from the streets of Seville, as Pacheco states in his biography of Velázquez. In Adoration of the Magi (1619, Prado, Madrid), for example, the artist painted his own family in the guise of biblical figures, including a self-portrait as well. Velázquez was also well acquainted with members of the intellectual circles of Seville. Pacheco was the director of an informal humanist academy; at its meetings the young artist was introduced to such people as the great poet Luis de Góngora y Argote, whose portrait he executed in 1622 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). Such contact was important for Velázquez's later work on mythological and classical subjects. Appointment as Court PainterIn 1622 Velázquez made his first trip to Madrid, ostensibly to see (as Pacheco tells it) the royal painting collections, but more likely in an unsuccessful search for a position as court painter. In 1623, however, he returned to the capital and, after executing a portrait (1623, Prado) of the king, was named official painter to Philip IV. The portrait was the first among many such sober, direct renditions of the king, the royal family, and members of the court. Indeed, throughout the later 1620s, most of his efforts were dedicated to portraiture. Mythological subjects would at times occupy his attention, as in Bacchus or The Drinkers (1628-29, Prado). This scene of revelry in an open field, picturing the god of wine drinking with ruffian types, testifies to the artist's continued interest in realism. Trip to ItalyIn 1628 Peter Paul Rubens came to the court at Madrid on a diplomatic mission. Among the few painters with whom he associated was Velázquez. Although the great Flemish master did not have a direct impact on the style of the younger painter, their conversations almost certainly inspired Velázquez to visit the art collections in Italy that were so much admired by Rubens. In August 1629 Velázquez departed from Barcelona for Genoa and spent most of the next two years traveling in Italy. From Genoa he proceeded to Milan, Venice, Florence, and Rome, returning to Spain from Naples in January 1631. In the course of his journey he closely studied both the art of the Renaissance and contemporaneous painting. Several of the works executed during his travels attest to his absorption of these styles; a notable example is Joseph and His Brothers (1630, El Escorial, near Madrid), which combines a Michelangelesque sculptural quality with the chiaroscuro (light-and-shadow techniques) of such Italian masters as Guercino and Giovanni Lanfranco (1582-1647). Return to SpainOn his return to Madrid, Velázquez resumed his duties as court portraitist with the sensitive rendition Prince Baltasar Carlos with a Dwarf (1631, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), an image made poignant by the young prince's death before reaching adulthood. From the 1630s on, relatively few facts are known about the artist's personal life, although his rise to prominence in court circles is well documented. In 1634 Velázquez organized the decoration of the throne room in the new royal palace of Buen Retiro; this scheme consisted of 12 scenes of battles in which Spanish troops had been victorious—painted by the most prestigious artists of the day, including Velázquez himself—and royal equestrian portraits. Velázquez's contribution to the cycle of battle pictures included the Surrender of Breda (1634, Prado), portraying a magnanimous Spanish general receiving the leader of defeated Flemish troops after the siege of that northern town in 1624. The delicacy of handling and astonishing range of emotions captured in a single painting make this the most celebrated historical composition of the Spanish baroque. The second major series of paintings of the 1630s by Velázquez was a group of hunting portraits of the royal family for the Torre de la Parada, a hunting lodge near Madrid. Dating from the late 1630s and early '40s are the famous depictions of court dwarfs in which, unlike court-jester portraits by earlier artists, the sitters are treated with respect and sympathy. Velázquez painted few religious pictures after entering the king's employ; Saints Anthony and Paul (late 1630s, Prado) and Immaculate Conception (circa 1644, Prado) are notable exceptions. Late Works During the last 20 years of his life Velázquez's work as court official and architect assumed prime importance. He was responsible for the decoration of many new rooms in the royal palaces. In 1649 he again went to Italy, this time to buy works of art for the king's collection. During his year's stay in Rome (1649-50) he painted the magnificent portraits Juan de Pareja (Metropolitan Museum, New York City) and Pope Innocent X (Palazzo Doria-Pamphili, Rome). At this time he was also admitted into Rome's Academy of Saint Luke. The elegant Venus at Her Toilette (National Gallery, London) probably dates from this time also. The key works of the painter's last two decades are Fable of Arachne (1644-48, Prado), an image of sophisticated mythological symbolism, and his masterwork, Las meninas (The Maids of Honor, 1656, Prado), a stunning group portrait of the royal family and Velázquez himself in the act of painting. Velázquez continued to serve Philip IV as painter, courtier, and faithful friend until the artist's death in Madrid on August 6, 1660. His work had a subtle impact a century later on his greatest successor, Francisco de Goya. </text>
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<text>Vasari, Giorgio (1511-74), Italian writer, painter, and architect, best known for his book on the lives of major Italian Renaissance artists. Vasari was born on July 30, 1511, in Arezzo. Trained in art as a child, he went to Florence, where he worked in the studio of Andrea del Sarto and won the patronage of the Medici family. Among Vasari's major surviving paintings are murals in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, and the Vatican in Rome. As an architect Vasari was a follower of his brilliant contemporary Michelangelo. Among the important buildings he designed are the Palazzo degli Uffizi in Florence, now a museum, and a number of palaces and churches in Pisa and Arezzo. It is as a writer, however, that he is most famous. His Lives of the Artists (1550, revised 1568; trans. 1912-14, 10 vol.), one of the earliest works on art written by an artist of merit, is a primary source of information about the artists of the Italian Renaissance. The revised edition includes his autobiography in addition to the lives of Michelangelo and other major painters of the time. Vasari's book offers his personal evaluation of the works of these artists, as well as discussions on the state of the arts. His easy, natural writing style helped to make his book one of the most enduring of art histories. He died in Florence on June 27, 1574. </text>
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<text>Vasari, Giorgio</text>
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<text>Varley, Frederick Horsman (1881-1969), Canadian painter. One of the nationalistic Group of Seven, he was especially admired for his portraits. In his powerful early paintings Varley depicted World War I battlefields and cemeteries. During the late 1920s he painted landscapes glorifying the Canadian wilds, as did the other Group of Seven artists. He became particularly individualistic in his later works, concentrating on human subjects, both in expressionistic scenes and in traditional portraits. </text>
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<text>Varley, Frederick Horsman</text>
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<text>Vanderlyn, John (1775-1852), American neoclassical painter. He studied briefly under the famous American portraitist Gilbert Stuart before being sent to Paris by his patron, the statesman Aaron Burr. The influence of the French neoclassical painter Louis David is evident in Marius Among the Ruins of Carthage (1807, M. H. de Young Museum, San Francisco), which won Napoleon's commendation, and in several painstaking works of mythological subjects. Ariadne Asleep on the Island of Naxos (1814, Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia) is considered one of the finest American nudes of the period. Turning to portraiture after 1820, Vanderlyn produced strong characterizations of George Washington, James Monroe, and other famous contemporaries. </text>
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<text>Vanderlyn, John</text>
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<text>Utrillo, Maurice (1883-1955), French painter, born in Paris, son of the painter Suzanne Valadon (1867-1938), who was his only art teacher. Utrillo's earliest work (1904-8), painted under the influence of the impressionists, is prevailingly delicate in color and consists of townscapes in suburbs north of Paris. From 1909 to 1914 Utrillo painted with a greatly limited palette dominated by shades of white. This period was known as his White Period; it marks both the development of Utrillo's personal style and the years of his greatest experimentation. In some of the paintings the colors are applied with a palette knife rather than a brush, to simulate the texture of the walls of plastered buildings; in others, the influence of cubism is clearly discernible. Utrillo's numerous canvases of empty Parisian streets, village scenes, and cathedrals, usually invested with somber pathos or grandeur, won him a worldwide reputation. Characteristic of these paintings is Rue Saint-Vincent (1913, Art Institute of Chicago). </text>
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<text>Utrillo, Maurice</text>
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<text> Utamaro, full name Kitagawa Utamaro (1753-1806), Japanese artist, one of the greatest masters of the Japanese print, who dominated the popular Ukiyo-e school during the 1790s. In his subtly colored prints of court ladies and women of the amusement district of Edo (Tokyo), Utamaro portrayed the ideals of feminine charm in all their aspects. He is outstanding for the grace and elegance of his designs, for his sensitive treatment of character and mood, and for his bravura execution of the difficult woodblock technique (for example, in his representation of sheer veils). Very successful in his career, Utamaro exerted a strong influence on later printmakers. </text>
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<text>Utamaro</text>
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<text>Unkei (circa 1148-1223), the most renowned sculptor in Japanese art. Active just before and during the early Kamakura period (1192-1333), he is known for the wooden statues he carved for Buddhist temples. His most famous works, the two monumental guardian deities (1203) for the gate of the Tódai-ji Monastery in Nara, illustrate the powerful modeling and strength of expression that set him apart from his less forceful contemporaries. Unkei's school of sculpture, which was continued by his sons Tankei (1173?-1256), Kóben (active 1215), and Kóshó (active 1232), became the most important in Japanese Buddhist art.</text>
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<text>Unkei</text>
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<text>Uccello, Paolo, real name Paolo Di Dono (circa 1397-1475), Italian Renaissance painter, notable for innovations in the use of foreshortening and linear perspective. He was born in Florence and apprenticed at an early age to the Florentine artist Lorenzo Ghiberti. In 1425 he went to Venice to design mosaics for the facade of Saint Mark's. He returned to Florence and in 1436 painted a fresco of the English soldier of fortune Sir John Hawkwood (1320?-94) for the Florence Cathedral. About 1444 he executed a series of stained-glass windows for the cathedral, of which one, on the resurrection, is still in place. Fragments also remain of frescoes painted about 1447 in the cloisters of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, depicting stories of the creation and the flood. Few paintings of Uccello are extant. The most famous are three versions of the Battle of San Romano (Uffizi, Florence; Louvre, Paris; and National Gallery, London), made in the late 1440s. Another major work is The Hunt (1468, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, England). These works show the painter's sophisticated handling of scientific perspective and his sense of decorative pattern. </text>
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<text>Uccello, Paolo</text>
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<text>Twachtman, John Henry (1853-1902), American impressionist painter. He studied abroad, first in Munich, in 1875, and later in Paris, where he was influenced by the French impressionists. His best works are pastel, dreamy landscapes that evoke the light and atmosphere of early spring or winter in closely keyed pale colors. Notable examples are Snowbound (circa 1890, Art Institute of Chicago) and The Hemlock Pool (1902, Addison Gallery of American Art, Andover, Massachusetts). </text>
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<text>Twachtman, John Henry</text>
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<text>Tussaud, Marie, called Madame Tussaud (1760-1850), Swiss modeler in wax, born in Strasbourg, France. Her uncle brought her to Paris, where he taught her wax modeling. During the French Revolution she was imprisoned and forced to make death masks of many renowned guillotine victims. She inherited her uncle's waxworks museum and in 1802 went to England, where she established (1835) Madame Tussaud's Exhibition. Her life-size wax figures are noted for their remarkable realism and her museum is still a popular London tourist attraction. </text>
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<text>Tussaud, Marie</text>
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<text>Tura, Cosimo (circa 1430-95), Italian painter of the early Renaissance, founder of the Ferrara school of painting, born in Ferrara. Between 1452 and 1456 he was probably in Venice and Padua, and in the latter city he may have studied with the Italian painter Andrea Mantegna. In Ferrara he provided paintings for the cathedral (1458), the Biblioteca del Pico (1465-67), the Sacrati Chapel (1468), and the Belriguardo Chapel (1472). Tura was the official portraitist to the Este family, the ducal house of Ferrara. He used angular poses and elaborate patterns of drapery in his work, and the realism of his figures borders on the grotesque. Typical is his Dead Christ Supported by Two Angels (circa 1475, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna). </text>
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<text>Tura, Cosimo</text>
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<text>Tung Ch'i-Ch'ang (1555-1636), influential Chinese painter and art theorist of the late Ming dynasty. Rejecting academic painting but dismayed by the profusion of decadent styles in contemporary literati painting, he advocated emulation and reinterpretation of the old masters. He favored an intellectual schematic approach to landscape painting, in which rational spatial composition, unrefined brush strokes, and frequent distortion of forms to fit the composition were more important than direct representation of nature. His paintings, such as Hut Under a Cliff (1624, Hochstadter Collection, New York City), often have a heaviness and stark, labored studiedness; nevertheless, their monumentality and communication of moral strength compensate for this lack of spontaneity. His theories of art, along with the example of his own work, codified the various schools of Chinese painting and exerted a particularly strong influence on later literati painting, both the conservative and the individualist styles.</text>
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<text>Tung Ch'i-Ch'ang</text>
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<text>Trumbull, John (1756-1843), American painter, best known for his large historical scenes of the American Revolution. His calm, forceful early portraits show the influence of the Boston artist John Singleton Copley. He spent five years in London (1784-89) in the studio of the American history painter Benjamin West, where he produced his first scenes of the American Revolution. His assimilation of the influences of the Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens's baroque grandiloquence and the French painter Jacques Louis David's calm nobility is evident in The Declaration of Independence (1794, Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut), probably his most important work, for which he had returned to the U.S. to sketch the signers from life. Trumbull settled permanently in New York in 1816 and in the following year was commissioned to execute monumental replicas of four of his revolutionary war scenes for the Rotunda of the Capitol in Washington, D.C. These works, however, are stiff and lifeless compared with the smaller originals. The liveliness, sparkle, and good composition of Trumbull's best paintings, however, considerably influenced early 19th-century American artists. </text>
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<text>Trumbull, John</text>
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<text> Trudeau, Garry (1948- ), American cartoonist, who won the Pulitzer Prize for his cartoon strip “Doonesbury.” He was born in New York City and educated at Yale University. While an undergraduate, he drew a comic strip for the Yale Daily News from 1968 to 1970 that lampooned many of the campus bigwigs. Shortly after entering graduate school Trudeau was offered a contract for a strip focusing on national figures by the fledgling Universal Press Syndicate. He agreed, and in 1970 “Doonesbury” appeared in 30 newspapers, including the Washington Post. The cartoon strip was controversial from the start, and several papers dropped it. Others that later cancelled it provoked such outrage from their readers that they were forced to reinstate it. In 1974 Trudeau won a Pulitzer Prize for the strip, an honor previously reserved for editorial page cartoonists. By 1975 “Doonesbury,” which had shortly before had only a small cult following, was published in more than 400 newspapers, with a readership of more than 40 million. During the 1980s “Doonesbury” lampooned President Ronald Reagan (1981-88) and then-Vice President George Bush (1981-88). Some papers moved “Doonesbury” to the editorial page. The strip was dropped by several papers in 1991 for portraying a cover-up of a federal drug enforcement agency's 1988 investigation of former Vice-President Dan Quayle (1989-93). Many of the “Doonesbury” strips were published in collections. These include Still a Few Bugs in the System (1972), But This War Had Such Promise (1975), Dressed for Failure (1984), and Sir, I'm Worried About Our Mood Swings (1984). Trudeau also wrote plays, including Doonesbury (1983) and A Partisan Review (1984) with Elizabeth Swados. Trudeau married broadcast journalist Jane Pauley in 1980. </text>
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<text>Trudeau, Garry</text>
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<text>Tobey, Mark (1890-1976), American abstract painter, born in Centerville, Wisconsin. In attempting to negate traditional form and outline he adopted techniques of Oriental calligraphy to create what he called white writing—labyrinthine webs of threadlike white ink lines on a dark background. These works are unusual in that they suggest depth through overlapping lines rather than through traditional perspective. They preceded the similar abstract expressionist “drip-painting” technique by several decades. </text>
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<text>Tobey, Mark</text>
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card_155616.xml
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<text>Titian (1477?-1576), the greatest 16th-century Venetian painter and the shaper of the Venetian coloristic and painterly tradition. He is one of the key figures in the history of Western art. Titian, whose name in Italian is Tiziano Vecellio, was born in Pieve di Cadore, north of Venice, by his own account in 1477; many modern scholars prefer to advance the date to about 1487. In Venice, he studied with Gentile Bellini and then with Giovanni Bellini, but only the latter left a lasting imprint on his style. Influence of GiorgioneThe first documented reference to Titian dates from 1508, when he was commissioned to paint frescoes, with the Venetian painter Giorgione, on the exterior of the Fondaco dei Tedeschi (the German Exchange). Unfortunately, the frescoes survive only in ruined fragments. Scholars disagree as to which paintings dating from the first decade of the 16th century were actually painted by Titian. Among the most important of the disputed works are the Allendale Nativity (n.d., National Gallery, Washington, D.C.), still assigned to Giorgione by most writers, and the world-famous Concert Champêtre (circa 1510, Louvre, Paris), once universally considered Giorgione's but now increasingly thought to be by Titian or a work of collaboration between the two. Scholars unanimously ascribe the so-called Gypsy Madonna (circa 1510, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) to Titian. This painting is an adaptation of a composition of Giovanni Bellini's, but the Virgin is an earthier type, and the colors and textures have a discreet opulence that foreshadows Titian's later work. Early Independent Work In Padua, in 1511, Titian executed frescoes of three Miracles of St. Anthony for the Scuola del Santo. These narratives demonstrate his power to imbue his ample figures with a convincing sense of anguished, impulsive life, as he set realistically conceived events within vividly and rather impressionistically realized landscapes. In later paintings of this decade Titian progressively enriched Giorgione's idyllic style. Bodies and fabrics took on an increasingly sensuous density and splendor, landscape settings became more resonant, colors deep and intense but harmonious—as in The Three Ages of Man (circa 1513, National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh) and Sacred and Profane Love (circa 1515, Galleria Borghese, Rome). The progression culminated in three bacchanals that Titian painted for a room in Duke Alfonso d'Este's palace in Ferrara between 1518 and 1522 (Worship of Venus and Bacchanal of the Andrians, both now in the Prado, Madrid; and Bacchus and Ariadne, now in the National Gallery, London). These, among the most famous and influential paintings of the Renaissance, transformed the Giorgionesque Arcadian idyll into Dionysiac celebrations. They are based on Roman literature and adapt figures from ancient sculpture and from Michelangelo, but render these vividly sensuous and contemporary, uniting them with an equally powerful and beautiful natural world. The dynamic vibrancy of these works is paralleled in Titian's religious paintings of the same period. First among these is the mighty Assumption of the Virgin (1516-18) over the high altar of Santa Maria dei Frari in Venice. Its strong colors, golden light, and massive, gesticulating figures, designed to be seen from afar, nevertheless remain plausible in terms of ordinary human experience. Its unveiling in 1518 provoked a sensation. In another painting for this church, the Madonna of the House of Pesaro (1519-26), Titian effected a crucial change in Renaissance sacre conversazioni (paintings of the Virgin enthroned among saints) by placing the Virgin, traditionally at the composition's center, halfway up its right side, and by painting behind her in diagonal recession two giant columns that soar out of the picture's space. This new scheme was widely adopted by later artists, such as Paolo Veronese and the Carracci family, and, with its evocation of movement and infinity, it opened the way to the baroque style. The most dynamic of all Titian's paintings of this period was the huge Death of St. Peter Martyr (1530, now destroyed), in which the violent action was echoed in the convulsion of trees and sky. These paintings, both secular and religious, give evidence of Titian's awareness of contemporary High Renaissance achievements in Rome and Florence. Known to him only through prints and drawings (before his visit to Rome in 1545-46), they served as a stimulus and an aid in creating a Venetian counterpart: a High Renaissance style equally complex, monumental, and dynamic, but one which made full use of the traditional Venetian resources of color, free brushwork, and atmospheric tone. Work of the Middle Period Titian's paintings of the 1530s are marked by relative quiet, pictorial subtlety, and coloristic refinement, as exemplified by the Venus of Urbino (1538-39, Uffizi, Florence, a revision of Giorgione's Sleeping Venus (circa 1510, Gemäldegalerie, Dresden). A new surge of energy is seen in the turbulent Battle of Cadore (circa 1540, once in the Palazzo Ducale, Venice; now known through copies) and in three grandiose ceiling paintings (1543-44, Santa Maria della Salute, Venice), in which drastic foreshortenings and titanic figures bespeak Titian's knowledge of the Mannerist style. PortraitsTitian's most important innovations in the years from 1530 to 1550 were made in portraiture. In 1516 he had been named official painter to the Venetian state; thereafter he worked at the courts of Ferrara and Mantua. In the 1530s and ‘40s he traveled to Bologna to paint the Emperor Charles V and Pope Paul III, and at the pope's behest he visited Rome and met Michelangelo. He joined the court of Charles V at Augsburg, Germany, in 1548 and 1550. As a result of this connection, he obtained a multitude of portrait commissions. Titian's portraits, initially like Giorgione's, soon took on a greater expansiveness and more overt authority to become compellingly beautiful images of idealized masculinity (Man with a Glove, c. 1520, Louvre) or femininity (Flora, c. 1515, Uffizi). In the 1520s and ‘30s, however, they changed. Aristocratic impersonality and restrained opulence, as in the portrait of Federigo Gonzaga (circa 1526, Prado), became the dominant tone. The neutral atmospheric backgrounds of the earlier portraits might be replaced by cannily disposed elements of setting, such as a column, a curtain, or a view into landscape. These elements, and the patterns in which Titian arranged them, remained staples of formal portraiture into the 20th century. In general, these court portraits are images of command rather than explorations of personality. In some portraits of the 1540s, however, such as Pietro Aretino (Frick Collection, New York) or Pope Paul III (1543, Capodimonte Museum, Naples), Titian used his unsurpassed skills as a visual dramatist to compel the viewer's participation in the sitter's inner life. Later WorksAfter 1550, when Titian had returned to Venice, his style again changed. In a series of superb mythological paintings for Philip II of Spain, beginning with the Danaë (circa 1553, Prado) and including the Rape of Europa (circa 1559-62, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston), forms gradually lose their solidity, partially dissolving into hazy paint textures and vibrant brushstrokes, while color becomes more intense, so that a universe seems to be on the verge of disintegrating into flame. A climax is reached in the ferocious Death of Actaeon (circa 1561, National Gallery, London) with its bronzy tonality and phosphorescent textures. Still more profound are the Flaying of Marsyas (circa 1570-76, Kromëríz, Czech Republic) and the Nymph and Shepherd (circa 1574, Kunsthistorisches Museum). Here colors are more subdued, but the turbulence of the brushwork, hardly matched again until 20th-century painting, almost submerges the form entirely. These late mythological paintings, which Titian called poesie (poems), stand among the most formidable statements ever made of the irresistible, elemental powers of nature. These works are paralleled by a sequence of impassioned religious paintings in which the same progressive dissolution of form into color and light takes place. Often nocturnal in setting, they include the stupendous Annunciation (1560-65, San Salvatore, Venice) and Crowning with Thorns (circa 1570, Alte Pinakothek, Munich). In such paintings Titian used this dematerializing style to convey a state of being that transcends the physical. This late style, an astounding phenomenon in the context of Renaissance art, had its final manifestation in the Pietà intended for Titian's own tomb chapel; the work was left unfinished at his death and is now in the Accademia in Venice. Titian died in Venice on August 27, 1576. His work, which permanently affected the course of European painting, provided an alternative, of equal power and attractiveness, to the linear and sculptural Florentine tradition championed by Michelangelo and Raphael; this alternative, eagerly taken up by Peter Paul Rubens, Diego Velázquez, Rembrandt, Eugène Delacroix, and the impressionists, is still vital today. In its own right, moreover, Titian's work often attains the very highest reach of human achievement in the visual arts. </text>
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<text>Tintoretto (circa 1518-94), Venetian Mannerist painter, one of the foremost artists of the later 16th century. His work inspired the development of baroque art. Tintoretto, originally named Jacopo Robusti, was called Il Tintoretto (“the little dyer”) in allusion to his father's profession. As a young man he studied briefly with Titian, who soon discharged him from his studio; the animosity between these two great painters lasted throughout their careers. Unlike Titian, Tintoretto lived and worked exclusively in Venice. His immense output was produced entirely for the churches, confraternities, and rulers of Venice and for the Venetian state. Early WorkIn the first decade of his career (circa 1538-48), Tintoretto searched for a style, turning to diverse sources for inspiration. Important among these were Florentine Mannerist paintings, the work of Michelangelo, and the relief sculpture of Jacopo Sansovino; from them Tintoretto learned modes of figure drawing and composition. From the Dalmatian painter Andrea Schiavone (1522?-82) he learned an extraordinarily broad, free, sketchy way of applying paint. These elements were combined in varying ways to striking effect in Tintoretto's paintings of the 1540s. His artistic coming of age is marked by the large St. Mark (1548, Accademia, Venice), painted for the Scuola di San Marco, in which Tintoretto's daring foreshortenings, spatial illusions, and high-keyed lighting mesh triumphantly to create an overwhelming impression of spontaneous action. Mature StyleIn the decades that followed, Tintoretto's style intensified without essentially changing, and the huge number of commissions he received attests to its enthusiastic reception. Even his staggering facility as a designer and executant could not cope with the work load, and he was increasingly aided by a large corps of assistants, notable among them being his daughter Marietta (circa 1556-90) and his son, Domenico (circa 1560-1637), whose contributions are often difficult to distinguish from his own. As a mature artist, Tintoretto tended progressively to rely on contrasts of brilliant light and cavernous dark (in which color as such became relatively insignificant), on eccentric viewpoints and extreme foreshortenings, and on flamboyantly choreographic groupings to heighten the drama of the events portrayed. His highest powers were called forth by the theme of supernatural incursion into human events—as in the three paintings of the miracles of St. Mark, painted (1562-66) for the Scuola di San Marco; the Last Supper (1594), in the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore; and many of the biblical paintings with which he adorned the ceilings and walls of the Scuola di San Rocco between 1564 and 1587. These last constitute the greatest pictorial enterprise of his career and one of the wonders of Renaissance painting. Almost equally extensive is the cycle of paintings he and his assistants executed for the Palazzo Ducale, culminating in the vast Paradise (1588-90), but here the level of inspiration is less consistent and the assistants' share larger. InfluenceTintoretto's penchant for diagonal compositions plunging or zigzagging into deep space, as well as the commanding theatricality of his lighting and the overall dynamism and expansiveness of his style, was taken up by the work of such pioneers of the baroque style as the Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens and the Carracci family. His effect on Venetian painting was still greater, but less beneficial. The shorthand notations for form and light that he developed tended even in his own later work to become stereotypes; for younger artists in Venice they were empty but seemingly inescapable formulas. After Tintoretto's death on May 31, 1594, in Venice, Venetian painting precipitously declined. </text>
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<text>Tintoretto</text>
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<text> Tiffany, Louis Comfort (1848-1933), painter and designer of decorative-glass art objects in the Art Nouveau style. Tiffany was born in New York City. After studying painting with the American artists George Inness and Samuel Colman (1832-1920) in New York City he went to Paris for further study. For a time he remained in Europe, painting oils and watercolors. Among his most outstanding paintings is Snake Charmer at Tangiers (1915?, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). Returning to New York he turned his attention to media other than paints. He established a glassmaking factory and experimented with stained glass for decorative-art objects. He is best remembered for inventing a process for making an opalescent glass, known as Tiffany favrile glass, which he used to fashion colorful windows, vases, lamps, and other decorative-art objects. Much prized by collectors today, the pieces are characterized by the curved and delicate lines of the Art Nouveau style. Among the most famous of Tiffany's works is an enormous glass curtain for the National Theater in Mexico City. He also designed jewelry, rugs, and textiles. In 1877 he helped organize the Society of American Artists. He was director of art for the Tiffany Studios and president and director of art for Tiffany and Company, the jewelry store founded by his father. </text>
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<text>Tiffany, Louis Comfort</text>
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<text> Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista (1696-1770), Italian painter, who was the last great master of the Venetian school, and the greatest muralist in the rococo style. Tiepolo was born in Venice on March 5, 1696, the son of a merchant. He studied with various Venetian painters but was most influenced by the 16th-century Venetian master Paolo Veronese. Tiepolo was first listed with the Venetian painters' guild in 1717. He was patronized by the Venetian doge and by other noble families of Venice and other north Italian cities. Tiepolo's art consisted principally of large frescoes or oil paintings on walls and ceilings designed to harmonize with the ornate, curvilinear, rococo architecture of the day. They present convincing, almost visionary scenes of biblical, mythological, and everyday life. The composition is dramatic, the line fluent and elegant, the color light and delicate, and the treatment of light highly atmospheric. Tiepolo's lighthearted style and pleasing pastel coloring remained popular long after architects began building in the more austere, rectilinear neoclassical style. Tiepolo also painted oil panels, chiefly altarpieces, that show the same graceful form and charming color as his murals. Among Tiepolo's early frescoes are Angels Bearing the Casa Santa from Nazareth to Loreto (1743-44) and other scenes for the Church of the Scalzi in Venice (destroyed in World War I). Especially notable are scenes from the lives of Antony and Cleopatra decorating the grand hall of the Palazzo Labia in Venice (before 1750). A ceiling painting in oil from this period is the Apotheosis of Francesco Barbaro (Metropolitan Museum, New York City). Tiepolo spent the years 1750-53 in Würzburg, Germany, under the patronage of its bishop, for whom he painted German historical and classical mythological scenes in the episcopal palace. In 1754 he returned to Venice, where he became director of the Venetian Academy. Frescoes of this period include The Triumph of Faith (1754-55) in the Church of the Pietà in Venice, scenes (1757) for the Villa Valmarana in Vicenza, and scenes (1758) for the Palazzo Rezzonico in Venice. Among his oil paintings are the Crucifixion (City Art Museum, Saint Louis), Holy Family with St. Gaetano (Academy, Venice), and many altarpieces in Venetian churches. Tiepolo also did many small, free oil sketches, finished drawings, and imaginative etchings. He was aided in producing this large volume of work by his sons Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo (1727-1804) and Lorenzo Tiepolo (1736-76). In 1762, at the invitation of Charles III, Tiepolo and his sons went to Spain to decorate the royal palace in Madrid. In the guardroom they painted the Smithy of Vulcan, in the antechamber Apotheosis of Spain, and on the throne room ceiling the magnificent Spain and Her Provinces (1762-67). Tiepolo died in Madrid, on March 27, 1770. </text>
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<text>Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista</text>
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<text>Thurber, James Grover (1894-1961), American cartoonist and author, whose writings, which range in variety from gentle whimsy to irony, gained him a place as one of America's greatest 20th-century humorists. Thurber's cartoons, often depicting melancholy-looking animals or oversized wives bedeviling undersized husbands, are also much admired. Thurber was born on December 8, 1894, in Columbus, Ohio. He attended Ohio State University, worked as a code clerk for the State Department, and then went to France, where he worked for the French editions of the Chicago Tribune. Moving to New York City in 1926, he was a reporter for the Evening Post. In 1927, Thurber took the post of staff writer and managing editor of The New Yorker; he continued as a contributor long after he left the magazine in 1933. Thurber was the author of many successful books. Is Sex Necessary? (1929) was written with E. B. White. It was followed by The Owl in the Attic and Other Perplexities (1931), My Life and Hard Times (1933), The Middle-Aged Man on the Flying Trapeze (1935), Let Your Mind Alone (1937), and Fables for Our Time (1940). The Male Animal (1940) is a play written with Elliott Nugent. The Thirteen Clocks (1950) and The Wonderful O (1957) are two popular books for children. The Years with Ross (1959) is an account of his life on The New Yorker. Failing eyesight obliged him to give up cartooning in the last decade of his life. He died on November 2, 1961, in New York City. </text>
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<text>Thurber, James Grover</text>
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<text>Thorvaldsen, Bertel (1770-1844), Danish sculptor, born in Copenhagen, and educated there at the Royal Academy. In 1797 Thorvaldsen (or Thorwaldsen) went to Italy to study classical sculpture. He lived in Rome until 1844, becoming a leading figure in the classical revival. His most famous works are allegorical reliefs and statues of classical subjects, such as Cupid and Psyche (1807, Thorvaldsen Museum, Copenhagen). He sculpted the Tomb of Pius VII (1824-31, Saint Peter's Basilica, Rome) and the celebrated outdoor Lion of Lucerne (1819-21, Lucerne, Switzerland). His collection of antique sculpture and many of his own neoclassical works are in the Thorvaldsen Museum in Copenhagen. </text>
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<text>Thorvaldsen, Bertel</text>
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<text>Thomson, Tom, full name Thomas John Thomson (1877-1917), influential Canadian painter, who inspired the Canadian landscapists known as the Group of Seven. Born in Claremont, Ontario, he was active for only four years before accidental death cut short his career. Thomson spent the summers from 1913 to 1917 as a ranger in Algonquin Park, Ontario, where he made numerous sketches of the rugged northern landscapes. These he used as models for the canvases—such as Jack Pine (1917, National Gallery, Ottawa), silhouetting a gnarled tree before a distant horizon—that he painted during the winter. His boldly designed works, which broke with the conventional landscape style, were vividly realistic, and yet almost abstract in their vivid color and manipulation of texture. </text>
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<text>Thomson, Tom</text>
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<text>Theophanes the Greek (circa 1335-1405), Byzantine painter, whose innovative, individualistic style, characterized by vigorous brushstrokes, convincing portraiture, and unusual colors, created an elevated form of beauty that strongly influenced later Russian painting. He began his career in Constantinople and the Crimea but worked in Russia after about 1370. Although he produced large numbers of frescoes and wall paintings for churches and palaces, very little of his work remains. His only definitely attributable work now extant is the fresco cycle in the Church of the Transfiguration (1378, Novgorod), including portraits of Noah, Abel, St. Macarius, and the Old Testament Trinity (Abraham's vision of three angels). </text>
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<text>Theophanes the Greek</text>
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<text>Ter Borch, Gerard (1617-81), Dutch painter, born in Zwolle, the son of a painter. He went to England in 1635, to Italy in 1640, and in 1648 to Münster, Westphalia, where he painted his celebrated Swearing of the Oath of Ratification of the Treaty of Münster (1648, National Gallery, London), marking the recognition of Dutch independence. Containing 60 likenesses, this work is a perfect specimen of miniature portrait painting and one of the most imposing historical works in Dutch art. From 1648 to 1651 Ter Borch was in Madrid. Despite his extensive foreign travels, he remained a painter of Dutch family life. He worked in the realistic tradition of Frans Hals, Jan Vermeer, and other Dutch painters, with careful attention to lighting and the rendering of fabric. He produced charmingly realistic portraits, such as Helena van der Schalke as a Child (1640s, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam), and small, intimate genre scenes, such as The Music Lesson (circa 1675, Cincinnati Art Museum). </text>
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<text>Ter Borch, Gerard</text>
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<text> Tenniel, Sir John (1820-1914), English cartoonist and book illustrator, born in London. From 1851 to 1901 Tenniel was cartoonist for Punch magazine, for which he drew about 2300 cartoons. Among his principal book illustrations are those for Aesop's Fables (1848) and for Lewis Carroll's classics, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There (1872). </text>
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<text>Tenniel, Sir John</text>
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<text>Tatlin, Vladimir (1885-1953), Russian sculptor and painter. Although he began working in a figurative style, his later sculpture is abstract. While in Paris in 1913, Tatlin was inspired by Pablo Picasso's three-dimensional constructions of wood, paper, and other materials. On his return to Russia, Tatlin began experimenting with abstract relief sculpture utilizing industrial materials such as glass, metal, wire, and wood. This work, done between 1913 and 1917, led to the founding of constructivism. Tatlin's interest in a sculpture of space and movement, applying engineering and architectural technology, culminated in his model for a huge Monument to the Third International (1919-20, Russian State Museums, Saint Petersburg). This structure was to be about 400 m (1312 ft) high and was to consist of a metal spiral frame tilted at an angle, enclosing three glass structures (in the shape of a cylinder, cone, and cube) housing conference spaces; all three units were to revolve slowly at intervals. It was never built, however, because of later government policy against abstract art. </text>
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<text>Tatlin, Vladimir</text>
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<text>Tàpies, Antoni (1923- ), Spanish abstract painter, born in Barcelona and largely self-taught. His early works were influenced by the Spanish innovators Joan Miro; and Antoni Gaudí y Cornet. In the 1950s he gave up pure oil painting. His new medium was oil or latex paint mixed with sand or grit, which he spread over the canvas and then either incised with hieroglyphiclike markings or molded into clothlike textures; thin crude washes of pale color added a faded or weather-beaten effect, heightening the sense of pain for which Tàpies strove. </text>
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<text>Tapies, Antoni</text>
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<text>Tao Chi, also called Shih T'ao (circa 1630-1714), Chinese artist, a leading painter of the nonorthodox, or individualist, school, who was one of the greatest masters of Ch'ing dynasty painting. Declaring that the “best method is no method,” Tao Chi produced paintings in many different styles, often making use of striking, unconventional compositions and untraditional brushwork. Tao Chi was equally admired for his calligraphy and his poetry.</text>
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<text>Tao Chi</text>
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<text> Tamayo, Rufino (1899-1991), Mexican painter, whose style combines native folk themes with such modern European art forms as cubism. His work stands somewhat outside the mainstream of Mexican art, as he was an avowed opponent of the dominant creed of epic revolutionary art, which put more emphasis on social consciousness than on artistic quality. Tamayo also pioneered a return to easel painting, in opposition to the mural style of the revolutionists. In such paintings as Women of Tehuantepec (1939, Albright-Knox Gallery, Buffalo, New York), he placed the strong, monumental figures of traditional Mexican art in a subtle, complex composition derived from advanced forms of French cubism. His later work received international acclaim, which resulted in commissions for large mural decorations such as Mexico Today (1953, Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City). In 1943 Tamayo had executed his first completely abstract work, Nature and the Artist (Smith College Collection, Northampton, Massachusetts); many of his subsequent paintings of the 1950s developed this tendency toward abstraction into a highly emotional, violent style. </text>
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<text>Tamayo, Rufino</text>
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<text>Taft, Lorado (1860-1936), American sculptor, born in Elmwood, Illinois. He studied art at the École des Beaux-Arts, Paris, and later settled in Chicago, where from 1886 to 1929 he was an instructor at the Art Institute. His works include numerous portraits, the sculpture Solitude of the Soul (1900, Chicago Art Institute), and many notable fountains, such as the huge marble Columbus Memorial Fountain (1912) in Washington, D.C., the Thatcher Memorial Fountain (1917) in Denver, Colorado, and the Fountain of the Great Lakes (1913) and the massive cast concrete Fountain of Time (1920), both in Chicago. He wrote The History of American Sculpture (1903), the first scholarly study of the subject. </text>
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<text>Taft, Lorado</text>
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<text>Sutherland, Graham Vivian (1903-80), English modernist painter, born in London. At first he was primarily a painter of romantic landscapes, but his mature style was molded by World War II, which led him to seek a visual equivalent for the destructiveness and malevolence of human behavior. These later paintings abound in strange semiabstract vegetable forms, especially thorns, as well as insect and animal forms that suggest disquieting human parallels. He also painted realistic, brooding portraits of such notables as the English author W. Somerset Maugham and Sir Winston Churchill. His largest work is the 4 by 12 m (14 by 40 ft) tapestry Christ in Majesty (1952-58) in the new Coventry Cathedral in England. </text>
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<text>Sutherland, Graham Vivian</text>
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<text>Sully, Thomas (1783-1872), American portraitist, born in Lincolnshire, England, and brought by his parents to Charleston, South Carolina, in 1792. Trained as a miniaturist by his brothers, he worked with various American painters, including John Trumbull and Gilbert Charles Stuart. He also studied for a year (1809) in England with the American expatriate painter Benjamin West and the English portraitist Thomas Lawrence. Returning to the U.S., he settled in Philadelphia where he painted about 2000 portraits. Among his subjects were many major American historical figures, including Presidents Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Andrew Jackson, all in a rich and colorful romantic style. </text>
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<text>Sully, Thomas</text>
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card_150378.xml
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<text>Stubbs, George (1724-1806), English artist, highly regarded for his paintings of horses and other animals. Almost entirely self-taught, in 1766 he published his Anatomy of the Horse, with 24 engraved plates that were outstanding for their beauty and anatomical accuracy. Thereafter he was in demand as a painter, particularly to produce portraits of famous horses and “conversation pieces,” in which a family was grouped around a carriage and pair. His paintings are notable for their elegant composition and calm, quiet atmosphere. </text>
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<text>Stubbs, George</text>
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<text> Stuart, Gilbert Charles (1755-1828), American portrait painter, born in North Kingston, Rhode Island. He grew up in Newport, R.I., where he studied painting before going to London in 1775. There he became the pupil of the expatriate American painter Benjamin West and was much influenced by the work of the English portrait painters Thomas Gainsborough and Sir Joshua Reynolds. In 1792, after establishing himself as a fashionable portrait painter in London and Dublin, Stuart returned to the U.S. His portraits, which number nearly 1000, brought him lasting fame, particularly the three he did of George Washington. His two most familiar portraits of Washington, of which he made over 100 copies, are the so-called Vaughan half-length type (1795, Metropolitan Museum, New York City) and the so-called “Athenaeum” portrayal (unfinished; 1796, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). Stuart also did portraits of Presidents John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison and of the British kings George III and George IV. </text>
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<text>Stuart, Gilbert Charles</text>
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<text>Strand, Paul (1890-1976), American photographer, born in New York City, who was a pioneer of realistic photography. Early in his career he abandoned the then-popular pictorial style, in which photographs were artificially composed to resemble oil paintings. Instead he produced semiabstract studies of ordinary objects such as kitchen bowls or white picket fences. In his close-ups of cameras and lathes, he became one of the first photographers to discover the beauty of precision machines. His most enduring subjects were nature and people, however, and his studies of the landscape and of the inhabitants of such diverse locales as New England, Mexico, France, and North Africa capture the essence of their subjects in a carefully composed but lyrical style. </text>
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<text>Strand, Paul</text>
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<text>Stoss, Veit (1447?-1533), German Gothic sculptor, born in Swabia, and trained in art in Nuremberg. Stoss executed the spectacular high altar for Saint Mary's Church in Kraków, Poland, between 1477 and 1489, and the sculptured red marble tomb of King Casimir IV of Poland, in the cathedral of Kraków in 1492. In 1499 he carved three stone reliefs, based on the life of Christ, in the Church of Saint Sebaldus in Nuremberg. His best-known sculpture is the Annunciation (1518) in the Church of Saint Lorenz, Nuremberg, carved in wood on a heroic scale and suspended from the vault. The sculptures of Stoss are renowned for their dramatic realism. Although Gothic in style, they also contain Renaissance elements. </text>
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<text>Stoss, Veit</text>
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<text>Still, Clyfford (1904-80), American painter, one of the principal exemplars of abstract expressionism, born in Grandin, North Dakota. His early works reveal many influences, including cubism, surrealism, and Dadaism, but his mature style, beginning in the late 1940s, was innovative and individual. The paintings are totally abstract; they are characterized by vast scale, extremely thick pigment, and strong color contrasts, with large streaked fields of color invaded by jagged fingers of lighter color or by raw canvas, as in 1957-D (1957, Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York). </text>
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<text>Still, Clyfford</text>
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<text>Stieglitz, Alfred (1864-1946), American photographer, editor, and art-gallery director, who urged the recognition of photography as an art. He was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, and was educated at the College of the City of New York and at the University of Berlin. He settled in New York City and from 1890 to 1893 worked as a photoengraver. He edited the periodical American Amateur Photographer; in 1897 he founded the periodical Camera Notes; and in 1903 he became editor and publisher of Camera Work. Subsequently Stieglitz and the photographer Edward Steichen founded and directed the Photo-Secession, a national organization of photographers that promoted pictorial photography. Through exhibitions at their gallery at 291 Fifth Ave., New York City, Stieglitz was instrumental in creating public acceptance of contemporary developments in art and photography. Among the well-known American painters first sponsored by Stieglitz were Georgia O'Keeffe, whom he married in 1924, Marsden Hartley, and John Marin. In 1925 he established and served as the director of the Intimate Gallery (from 1929, An American Place.) He was world-famous for his photographs, particularly highly individualized portraits. He contributed numerous articles on photography to technical and art periodicals. </text>
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<text>Stieglitz, Alfred</text>
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<text>Stella, Joseph (1877-1946), one of the first American modernist painters. Born near Naples, Italy, he went to the United States in 1896. A European trip (1909-12) introduced him to futurism and the Italian painters who were interpreting the machine age in their art. He introduced the style to America in his landmark Battle of Lights: Coney Island (1913, Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut), a kaleidoscope of fragmented, glittering forms. Stella's style became gradually less hectic and more formal, as in The Bridge (one of the New York Interpreted series, 1920-22, Newark Museum, Newark, New Jersey), a quiet composition that evokes the linear tensions of the Brooklyn Bridge. His later works, including landscapes and collages, were less influential. </text>
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<text>Stella, Joseph</text>
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<text>Stella, Frank (1936- ), American painter, born in Malden, Massachusetts, whose work is considered to have influenced the development of minimal art. He began painting as an undergraduate at Princeton University. His earliest works reveal the influences of the geometric gridlike art of Piet Mondrian as well as the loose, thickly painted style of abstract expressionism. His later work, beginning in 1958, rejected the subjectivity of expressionism in favor of an impersonal objectivity, that treats the painting as an object in its own right—a painted surface—rather than as a representation of a thing or an embodiment of a state of mind. Stella's first exhibited works in this mode were the so-called pinstripe, or black paintings: parallel black stripes outlined by bare canvas. It was this style that paved the way for minimalism. Later, in the 1960s, he experimented with bright colors and with odd-shaped canvases. Stella has produced several series of paintings, each exploring a particular theme. The best known of these are a series of bands of bright color that create illusions of depth similar to those produced by the bellows of a camera (1962); striped shaped canvases, trapezoids, “L”s and “T”s (1960-63), dual zigzags and pinwheels (1964-65), and a so-called protractor series, geometric circles and half circles of huge size (1967-68). In the late 1970s Stella began to evolve a style that combined a return to expressionism with three-dimensional elaborations of the painted surface. </text>
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<text>Stella, Frank</text>
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<text>Steichen, Edward (1879-1973), American photographer, who sought an emotional, impressionistic rendering of his subjects and strove to have photography recognized as a serious art form. Steichen was born in Luxembourg on March 27, 1879, and brought to the United States as a child. He began working in photography at 16, and went to Paris to study painting at 21. In New York City he joined (1905) the American photographer Alfred Stieglitz in establishing Gallery 291, where many important 20th-century painters received their first American showings. The following year Steichen returned to Paris, where he experimented with painting, photography, and the crossbreeding of plants. In 1923 Steichen returned to New York City as chief photographer for Vanity Fair and Vogue magazines. Among the famous people he photographed for Vanity Fair are the American actor Greta Garbo and the British actor Charlie Chaplin. In 1938 Steichen retired to his West Redding, Connecticut, farm. During World War II he directed a U.S. Navy combat photography team. In 1947 Steichen was appointed director of photography for the Museum of Modern Art in New York. He prepared The Family of Man, a photographic exhibit (1955) that later toured the world and in book form sold 3 million copies. His work is collected in the Museum of Modern Art and Eastman House, Rochester, New York. He died in West Redding on March 25, 1973. </text>
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<text>Steichen, Edward</text>
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<text>Steen, Jan Havickszoon (1626-79), Dutch painter, who is especially noted for genre scenes. He was born in Leiden and educated at the University of Leiden. He is believed to have studied painting first in Utrecht with the German artist Nicolaus Knupfer (1603-60), then in The Hague with the Dutch artist Jan van Goyen, whose daughter he married in 1649. Steen lived at The Hague until 1654, when he moved to Delft and, according to tradition, adopted his father's occupation of brewer. Subsequently he returned to Leiden, where he opened a tavern in 1672. Steen was a prolific painter, particularly of lively tavern scenes and of children, although he painted landscapes, portraits, and religious works as well. Among his best-known paintings are The Cat Family (1660, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest), Young Woman at Her Toilette (1663, Buckingham Palace, London), Wedding (1667, Wellington Museum, London), and The Surprise (1675, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). </text>
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<text>Steen, Jan Havickszoon</text>
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<text>Soutine, Chaïm (1894-1943), Russian-born French expressionist painter, born in Smilovichi near Minsk, Belarus. He immigrated to Paris in 1913 and soon developed his highly personal vision and technique. Most of his work, done between 1920 and 1929, is characterized by violent distortions that reflect his struggle to reveal the inner nature of his subjects. He sacrificed careful composition and good drawing to feverish intensity, employing thick pigment in vivid, often deliberately ugly colors. His works include pitiless psychological portraits of bakers, valets, and choirboys (Pastry Cook, 1922, Louvre, Paris); still lifes of sides of meat in various stages of putrefaction (Carcass of Beef, c. 1925, Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York); and tormented landscapes with scudding clouds and bending trees (Sinister Street, c. 1921, Kunstmuseum, Lucerne). He often reworked or destroyed his earlier paintings, and he produced little new work after 1930. </text>
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<text>Soutine, Chaim</text>
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<text>Sodoma, Il (1477-1549), real name Giovanni Antonio Bazzi, Italian painter, whose work bridges the High Renaissance and Mannerist styles. He drew on the lush style of the Italian painters Luca Signorelli and Raphael, as well as on the sfumato (softening) technique of Leonardo, to create religious and mythological works that were graceful, delicate, and occasionally self-conscious in their beauty and sweetness. His most important project was the series of 31 frescoes in the monastery of Monte Oliveto Maggiore (1508). </text>
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<text>Sodoma, Il</text>
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<text>Snyders, Frans (1579-1657), Flemish painter, born in Antwerp. One of his teachers was the Flemish painter Pieter Brueghel the Younger. After making his reputation as a painter of flower and fruit still lifes, Snyders became a master of animal painting and did notable canvases of hunting scenes and animals in combat. Some of the best examples of these are The Bear Hunt (Kaiser Friedrich Museum, Berlin), Fox Hunting (Kunsthistorische Museum, Vienna), and Stag Hunt (Mauritshuis, The Hague). Snyders was employed to paint animals in large works by the Flemish artists Peter Paul Rubens and Jacob Jordaens. One of Snyders's creations for Rubens is the ferocious eagle in the latter's Prometheus (1611-12, Philadelphia Museum of Art). </text>
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<text>Snyders, Frans</text>
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<text>Smithson, Robert (1938-73), American sculptor, one of the founders in the 1960s of the art form known as earthworks, which deliberately recall prehistoric burial mounds. One of Smithson's best-known pieces is Spiral Jetty, a 4.5 m- (15 ft-) wide coiled structure of rock and debris, covered with crystallized salt, that extends into Great Salt Lake, Utah. Completed in 1970, it has since been submerged by natural flooding. Two similar earthworks, Spiral Hill (1971) and Broken Circle (1972), were erected near Emmen, the Netherlands. Inspiration for the shape and construction of these pieces came from the Great Serpent Mound in southern Ohio. </text>
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<text>Smithson, Robert</text>
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<text>Smith, W. Eugene (1918-78), American photographer, known as a pioneer of the photographic essay. Born in Wichita, Kansas, he spent most of his career as a photojournalist working for various publishing concerns. For the weekly newsmagazine Life, beginning in 1939, he produced such landmark photographic essays as “Country Doctor,” “Spanish Village,” and “A Man of Mercy,” about Albert Schweitzer. During World War II he served as a combat photographer in the Pacific. His best-known work, Minamata, is a study of the devastating effects of mercury poisoning on a Japanese fishing village; it was published as a book in 1975. Smith's work is notable for the sensitivity and deep moral concern with which he treated his subjects. </text>
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<text>Smith, W. Eugene</text>
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<text>Smith, Tony (1912-80), American sculptor, born in South Orange, New Jersey. Originally an architect, he became in the 1960s the chief founder of the minimalist school of sculpture. His huge works, executed in steel or in plywood mock-ups, are characteristically composed of black-painted modular elements in basic geometric shapes that are severe, massive, and powerful. </text>
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<text>Smith, Tony</text>
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<text>Smith, David Roland (1906-65), American sculptor, whose abstract metal constructions were an important and influential development in 20th-century sculpture. Smith was born March 9, 1906, in Decatur, Illinois. Two years of study at the Art Students League in New York City exposed him to cubism and abstraction, and a job at a Studebaker plant gave him an equally important grounding in practical metalworking. In 1933, inspired by published pictures of iron sculptures by the Spanish artists Pablo Picasso and Julio Gonzales (1876-1942), he produced his first metal sculptures from agricultural machinery parts and various other metal objects. In 1940 he exhibited Medals for Dishonor, 15 reliefs with a strong element of social commentary. During World War II, Smith worked in a locomotive factory, acquiring a lifelong interest in machinery and in large-scale constructions. Many of his sculptures of the 1940s, such as Royal Bird (1948, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota), are grim metaphors for human violence and greed—gaunt skeletal works in which metal rods twisted around central cores assume suggestively organic shapes. After 1950 Smith's work became more abstract and geometric, as in Star Cage (1950, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis), a delicate and airy assemblage of steel rods and curved metal parts. His late works, such as the Tank Totem, Sentinel, and the Cubi series, were both massive and simple. Many of these sculptures were placed by Smith on the grounds of his farm-studio in Bolton Landing, New York, where the reflections of sunlight on their burnished metal surfaces produced calculated effects. The Cubi works are particularly impressive, consisting of great blocklike polished metal shapes arranged at odd angles on high bases, evoking the “great quiet of stopped machinery.” He died May 24, 1965, in an auto accident near Bennington, Vermont. </text>
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<text>Smith, David Roland</text>
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<text>Sloan, John French (1871-1951), American painter and etcher, born in Lock Haven, Pennsylvania, and educated at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, in Philadelphia. He worked as an illustrator for newspapers and periodicals in Philadelphia and New York City and was an instructor at the Art Students League in New York City from 1914 to 1938, except for the year 1930-31, when he served as its president. Sloan was one of a group of outstanding American artists known as The Eight, and also derisively as the Ashcan school because its members painted ruthlessly realistic scenes of city life. Sloan's paintings in the style of this school are especially noted for the vivid characterizations of people. He also painted scenes of American Indian life in New Mexico and numerous portraits and nudes. Among Sloan's best-known paintings are McSorley's Bar (before 1905, Detroit Institute of Arts), Sunday, Women Drying Their Hair (1912, Addison Gallery, Andover, Massachusetts), and Backyards, Greenwich Village (1914, Whitney Museum, New York City). He was the author of Gist of Art (1939). </text>
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<text>Sloan, John French</text>
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<text>Sisley, Alfred (1839-99), French landscape painter, born in Paris of English parents. He was a pupil in the studio of the Swiss painter Charles Gabriel Gleyre (1808-74), where he met the French artists Claude Monet and Pierre Auguste Renoir. With them, he became one of the founders of the impressionist school of painting. Although Sisley's work attracted little attention in his lifetime, its importance has since been recognized. Sisley's gentle, idyllic paintings, mainly of scenes near Paris, reveal the lifelong influence of the French painter Camille Corot, especially in their soft, harmonious colors. They include La Seine à Bougival (circa 1872, Yale University Gallery of Art, New Haven, Connecticut), Flood at Port-Marly (1876, Louvre, Paris), and Street in Moret (1888, Art Institute of Chicago). </text>
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<text>Sisley, Alfred</text>
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<text>Simone Martini (circa 1280-1344), Italian painter, who was one of the most original and influential artists of the Sienese school. Simone was born in Siena. Building on the techniques for indicating three-dimensional space developed by the Sienese master Duccio di Buoninsegna, Simone added a refined contour of line, grace of expression, and serenity of mood. He painted many frescoes, introducing the fresco technique into the Sienese school. He also painted altarpiece panels, such as the Virgin and Child (1320) for the Church of Saint Catherine in Pisa. Simone lived in Assisi for a time, where he produced one of his greatest frescoes, illustrating scenes from the life of St. Martin for the chapel of St. Martin. In 1339, at the request of Pope Benedict XII, he went to Avignon, where he executed frescoes in the papal palace and the cathedral. Among his works are Saint John the Baptist (National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.) and The Annunciation (1333, Uffizi Gallery, Florence), considered one of the greatest achievements of the Sienese school. </text>
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<text>Simone Martini</text>
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<text>Signorelli, Luca, full name Luca d'Egidio di Ventura de' Signorelli (circa 1445-1523), Italian Renaissance painter, born in Cortona. One of the great masters of the Umbrian school, he was associated with the Tuscan painter Piero della Francesca, perhaps as his pupil, from whom he derived his treatment of perspective. His mastery of human anatomy was inspired by the work of the Florentine painter Antonio Pollaiuolo. The Madonna and Child with Four Saints and an Angel (1484), a signed altarpiece for a chapel in Perugia Cathedral, reveals his developed handling of anatomy. His masterpieces are the vast frescoes of scenes in hell, purgatory, and heaven, done (1499-1504) for the chapel of San Brizio in Orvieto Cathedral. Inspired by the Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri, they include the intensely dramatic End of the World and the Last Judgment, with violently contorted bodies. These powerful figures, with their realistic anatomical detail, influenced Michelangelo and Raphael. </text>
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<text>Signorelli, Luca</text>
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<text>Signac, Paul (1863-1935), French postimpressionist painter, born in Paris. In 1893, under the influence of the French painter Georges Seurat, he abandoned the use of ordinary brushstrokes to experiment with scientifically juxtaposed dots of pure color using the neoimpressionist technique known as pointillism. The dots create a prismatic effect that give his scenes—mainly river or seashore views—a strong impression of glittering natural sunlight. After 1900 Signac abandoned the dots of pointillism for small squares of color that create a mosaiclike effect, as in View of the Port of Marseilles (1905, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). He also produced vibrant watercolors in a more spontaneous, freely composed style. </text>
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<text>Signac, Paul</text>
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<text>Sickert, Walter Richard (1860-1942), German-born English painter, who painted urban life and genre scenes. He was a pupil of the American painter James Abbott McNeill Whistler. Later, influenced by the coolly analytical paintings of the French artist Edgar Degas, he painted realistic scenes of London theaters, pubs, music halls, and humble interiors. His enthusiasm for his rough, sometimes sordid, subject matter gave many of his pictures verve and excitement. </text>
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<text>Sickert, Walter Richard</text>
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card_143499.xml
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<text>Sheraton, Thomas (1751-1806), English furniture designer, born in Stockton-on-Tees, England. He appears to have lived all of his life in near poverty; he began to work in London as a furniture designer about 1790. Sheraton's reputation rests on his skills as a designer rather than as a cabinetmaker, since nothing of his work has been authenticated. His designs often were eclectic, the best of them having a grace and simplicity that place him in the front rank of furniture designers. His late work, less classic and more elaborate, is not as highly regarded. He published several books, the most important of which is The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterers' Drawing Book (4 vol., 1791-94), with explications and color plates that helped to popularize his design ideas.</text>
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<text>Sheraton, Thomas</text>
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card_143230.xml
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<text>Shahn, Ben, full name Benjamin Shahn (1898-1969), American artist, born in Kaunas, Russia (now in Lithuania), and taken to the United States in 1906. He supported himself as a lithographer until 1930, when he held his first solo show in New York City. Shahn made his early impact as a painter with a series of two large panels and 23 small gouaches (1931-32, Whitney Museum, New York City) collectively called The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti, based on a case that concerned the controversial execution of the two men for murder. These works were the first of many by Shahn classified as social realism, that is, paintings characterized by the social, usually liberal, attitude of the painter. Subjects he often painted were immigrants, the poor, sweatshops, and unflattering portraits of politicians. Shahn's work is notable for its strong, flat color and clear, incisive line. </text>
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<text>Shahn, Ben</text>
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card_142623.xml
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<text> Severini, Gino (1883-1966), Italian painter, born in Rome, who was one of the founders of futurism. His paintings, influenced by the fragmented cubist technique, represent action or movement as a swirling composition of broken lines and shapes, as in his well-known study of a dancer, Dynamic Hieroglyphic of the Bal Tabarin (1912, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). He also worked in mosaic and fresco, and he wrote influential books on the theory of art. Working chiefly in Paris, Severini was instrumental in disseminating futurism outside Italy. </text>
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<text>Severini, Gino</text>
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card_142554.xml
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<text> Seurat, Georges (1859-91), French painter, who with the painter Paul Signac originated the influential theory and practice of neoimpressionism. Seurat was born in Paris on December 2, 1859, and was trained at the École des Beaux-Arts. Rejecting the soft effect of impressionist works made up of irregular brushstrokes, he developed the more scientific technique of pointillism, in which solid forms are built up through the application of many small dots of unmixed color to a white background. Seurat's revolutionary pointillism found many pupils and imitators but, except in the work of Signac, was unequaled in its perfect blending of colors. Many of Seurat's theories in regard to painting were derived from his study of contemporary treatises on optics. His scientific bent was revealed also in his work habits, which included fixed hours and the meticulous systematization of his technique. In 1884 Seurat completed Bathers (Tate Gallery, London), a scene of boys bathing in the Seine River; this was the first of six large canvases that constituted the major part of his life's work. In this and subsequent works, he continued the impressionist tradition of depicting holiday outings and entertainments. He departed from impressionist style, however, in the precise application of the paint and in the suggestion of depth and volume. His masterpiece, A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1884-86, Art Institute of Chicago), represents Sunday strollers on an island in the Seine. The painting achieves an atmosphere of monumental dignity through the balanced arrangement of its elements and the contours of its figures. Seurat's other large-scale works are The Models (1888, Barnes Collection, Philadelphia), The Side Show (1889, Stephen Clark Collection, New York), The Chahut (1889-91, Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands), and The Circus (1890, Louvre, Paris). He died in Paris on March 29, 1891. </text>
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<text>Seurat, Georges</text>
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card_173094.xml
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<text>Seton, Ernest Thompson (1860-1946), American writer and illustrator, born in South Shields, Durham, England. In his youth, he lived in remote parts of western Canada and the U.S. He studied art at the Royal Academy, London, and in Paris. Writing and drawing at first under his original name of Ernest Seton Thompson and later as Ernest Thompson Seton, he became noted for his books of nature stories, which he illustrated. Among them are Wild Animals I Have Known (1898) and Biography of an Arctic Fox (1937). In 1902 Seton founded in the U.S. the Woodcraft Indians, an organization of boys. Some of its principles were later adopted by the Boy Scouts, founded in 1908 in England. Seton was a leader of the Boy Scout movement in America from its inception in 1910 until 1915, when he resigned and founded the Woodcraft League of America, similar to his original Woodcraft Indians.</text>
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<text>Seton, Ernest Thompson</text>
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<text>Sesshû (1420?-1506), Japanese painter and Buddhist priest of the Zen sect, considered one of the foremost figures in Japanese art. Sesshû studied under the great painter and Zen priest Shûbun (circa 1390-1464) in Kyoto. In 1467 Sesshû visited China, living at the imperial court in Beijing. He was little influenced by the art styles of the contemporary Ming dynasty (1368-1644), modeling his work instead on the landscape painting of the Sung dynasty (960-1279). Some of his paintings are executed in a precise, vigorous style achieved through the use of a brush loaded with almost dry pigment, applied to the painting in meticulously planned strokes. Examples are the celebrated Longer Landscape Scroll (Mori Collection, Tokyo) and the pair of screens Flowers and Cranes (Kosaka Collection, Tokyo). Other works are freely and impressionistically executed in the “flung-ink” technique, as in Haboku Landscape (Cleveland Museum of Art). </text>
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<text>Sesshu</text>
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card_141984.xml
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<text>Seghers, Hercules Pieterszoon (circa 1590-c. 1635), Dutch landscape artist. Active in Haarlem and Amsterdam, he specialized in paintings and etchings of mountain scenery. His views, notable for their bold contrasts of light and shadow, have a mystical, brooding quality; in them, human beings are reduced to an occasional lonely figure dwarfed by the forbidding surroundings. One of the most original of his contemporaries, he was the first Dutch etcher to produce colored engravings, and his work strongly influenced later artists, including Rembrandt. </text>
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<text>Seghers, Hercules Pieterszoon</text>
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<text>Segal, George (1924- ), American sculptor, known for his life-size white plaster casts of human figures. Born in New York City, Segal worked first, in the 1950s, as a painter, turning to sculpture after 1960. His plaster casts, taken directly from living people, are placed in mundane or lonely sculptural settings—such as elevators, ticket booths, diners, or buses—furnished with objects and props purchased from junkyards. His white figures are left rough and unfinished, their features vague and indistinct, to create a mood of desolation or mystery. His fondness for including in his scenes trite, everyday objects—such as bathroom fixtures and a shaver in Woman Shaving Her Leg (1963, Mayer Collection, Winnetka, Illinois)—has led some critics to group him with the pop art school, but his work, in its communication of melancholy human feelings, goes beyond the impersonality of pop art. </text>
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<text>Segal, George</text>
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<text>Sebastiano del Piombo, real name Sebastiano Luciani (circa 1485-1547), Italian painter, born in Venice. He was a pupil of the Venetian painter Giorgione, whose mild manner influenced Death of Adonis (1512, Uffizi Gallery, Florence). From about 1511 Sebastiano worked in Rome, where he was strongly influenced by Michelangelo, who befriended him, wrote him letters, and gave him drawings that Sebastiano executed in paint. Something of Michelangelo's forceful monumentality may be seen in such works of Sebastiano as the Pietà (circa 1517, Museo Civico, Viterbo), the great Resurrection of Lazarus (1519, National Gallery, London), and the Flagellation (1516-24, San Pietro in Montorio, Rome). Sebastiano excelled in painting portraits, which show the influence of the Italian Renaissance painter Raphael. They include Andrea Doria (1526, Gallerina Doria Pamphili, Rome) and Clement VII (1526, Museo di Capodimonte, Naples). In 1531 Pope Clement VII appointed Sebastiano keeper of the papal seals (il piombo), from which his nickname was derived. </text>
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<text>Sebastiano del Piombo</text>
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card_140666.xml
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<text>Scopas (flourished 4th century bc), Greek sculptor and architect, born on the island of P√°ros. With Praxiteles he is considered to be a leader of the late Attic school. Works attributed to Scopas are characterized by an expression of emotional intensity conveyed by partly opened lips and deep-set eyes. Among the few remaining original works identified with him are the pediment sculptures (now in the National Museum, Athens) from the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea, of which he may also have been the architect. Toward the end of his life Scopas is believed to have collaborated in carving figures for the great Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Among several Roman copies that may be his work are the Apollo Citharoedus (Villa Borghese, Rome), the bust Meleager (Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts), and the Ludovisi Ares (Terme Museum, Rome). </text>
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<text>Scopas</text>
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<text>Schwitters, Kurt (1887-1948), German artist, best known for his collages and junk sculpture, born in Hannover. Schwitters began painting as an expressionist, but in 1919 he turned to collage, his works incorporating trash such as train tickets, newspapers, and bus transfers, which he exploited for their color and texture and for their surprise value. After 1922, the careful linear organization of his collages shows the influence of the Dutch group known as de Stijl. Schwitters also constructed three memorable versions of his Merzbau—a gigantic conglomeration of trash and useless objects—first in Germany, then in Norway, and finally in England, where he died. </text>
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<text>Schwitters, Kurt</text>
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<text>Schongauer, Martin (1445-91), German painter and engraver, best known for his 115 monogrammed copper engravings. He was born in Colmar, Alsace (now in France), where he spent most of his life. Most of his works are not authenticated or precisely datable. His late Gothic paintings show the strong influence of Flemish painters, especially Rogier van der Weyden. Although he painted prolifically, only a few of Schongauer's canvases have survived. Of these his masterpiece is Madonna of the Rose Arbor, also known as Virgin and Child in a Rose Garden, a monumental sensitive altarpiece, executed in 1473 for the Church of Saint Martin in Colmar. Schongauer's monogrammed copper engravings show a special richness and maturity because of his knowledge of painting. He was the first and foremost engraver of his time in northern Europe and his ornamental designs greatly influenced the development of German art, particularly the work of the later German master Albrecht Dürer. Schongauer's engravings, all of religious subjects, exhibit fine detail, economy of composition, and a greater range of light-and-shadow contrasts and textures than earlier printmakers had used. Among his best-known engravings are Death of the Virgin, one of his large, early works, and Passion of Christ, a set of 12 engravings executed later in life (circa 1477) when he had turned to work on smaller plates. </text>
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<text>Schongauer, Martin</text>
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<text>Schmidt-Rottluff, Karl (1884-1976), German expressionist painter and graphic artist. Originally named Karl Schmidt, he was born near Chemnitz. In 1905 Schmidt-Rottluff was a founding member of Die Brücke (“The Bridge”), a group of German expressionist painters (Brucke, Die), but he exceeded other members of the group in the boldness of his abstractions and the dissonance of his color. After 1910 Schmidt-Rottluff's style became more moderate. His woodcuts, influenced by primitive art, are of exceptional quality. Often portraying biblical scenes, they employ dramatic black-and-white compositions to create a strong mystical or religious feeling. </text>
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<text>Schmidt-Rottluff, Karl</text>
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<text>Schlüter, Andreas (circa 1664-1714), German sculptor and architect, the most artistically powerful exponent of German baroque sculpture. Probably born in Hamburg, Schlüter was active mainly in Berlin, as court sculptor to the King Frederick I. Aesthetically influenced by the Italian sculptors Michelangelo and Bernini, Schlüter worked in carved stone, cast bronze, and stucco relief. Among his most famous sculptures are the statue of Frederick I (1697) at the royal castle in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) and the equestrian statue of Frederick William, the Great Elector (1703, Schloss Charlottenburg, Potsdam, Germany), both in bronze. Schlüter's most successful architectural work was the New Palace in Berlin (1706, destroyed in World War II). </text>
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<text>Schluter, Andreas</text>
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<text>Schlemmer, Oskar (1888-1943), German painter, sculptor, and stage designer, born in Stuttgart. His semiabstract works feature rigidly simplified lines and curves, most of them depicting stiff, two-dimensional human figures in mazelike or geometric architectural settings, as in his best-known painting, Bauhaus Staircase (1932, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). He was influential as a set designer and as a teacher at several German academies, including the Bauhaus. </text>
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<text>Schlemmer, Oskar</text>
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<text>Schiele, Egon (1890-1918), Austrian expressionist painter, born near Vienna. Although Schiele was strongly influenced by the Art Nouveau arabesques of Gustav Klimt, his own works were characterized by more angular, nervous lines. The human figure was his main subject, and his female and male nudes have a frankly erotic quality in spite of their lonely, emaciated forms. He often emphasized his subjects' hands in twisted, agonized configurations. The personal quality of his choppy brushstrokes and splotches of sharp color made him unique among expressionist painters, but his early death from influenza limited his influence. </text>
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<text>Schiele, Egon</text>
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<text>Sassetta, professional name of Stefano di Giovanni (circa 1400-50), Italian painter, one of the last masters of the Sienese Gothic school. He painted chiefly altarpieces, and his work shows the characteristic Gothic qualities of jewel-like colors, long elegant lines, gold backgrounds, and a poetic, pious mood. Certain details, however, such as an awareness of perspective, show Florentine influence and make his work transitional between the Gothic and Renaissance styles. </text>
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<text>Sassetta</text>
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<text>Sargent, John Singer (1856-1925), American painter, who is known for his glamorous portraits of eminent or socially prominent people of the period. He was born in Florence, Italy, of American parents. He studied art in Italy, France, and Germany, receiving his formal art education at the École des Beaux-Arts and in the Paris studio of the noted French portraitist Carolus Duran. He spent most of his adult life in England, maintaining a studio there for more than 30 years and visiting America only on short trips. Criticized for what some believed to be a superficial brilliance, Sargent's portraits fell into disfavor after his death. Since that time, however, these same canvases have been acknowledged for their naturalism and superb technical skill. About 1907 Sargent tired of portrait painting and accepted few commissions. He then worked chiefly on European scenes in watercolor, in a notably impressionistic style. Among his more famous works are El Jaleo (1882, Gardner Museum, Boston), Madame X (1884, Metropolitan Museum, New York), The Wyndham Sisters (1900, Metropolitan Museum), and Boats at Anchor (1917, Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, Massachusetts). </text>
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<text>Sargent, John Singer</text>
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<text>Sansovino, Jacopo (circa 1486-1570), Italian architect and sculptor, who was instrumental in introducing the High Renaissance style to Venice. Originally named Jacopo Tatti, he was trained in Florence by the sculptor Andrea Sansovino, whose name he adopted; his early sculpture was influenced principally by ancient classical works. In 1527 Sansovino settled in Venice. Appointed state superintendent of building in 1529, he designed palaces, churches, and public buildings, uniting the classical tradition of the Florentine master Bramante with the more highly ornamented Venetian style. The Palazzo Corner (designed 1532) represents the first successful use of the classical facade—columns, arcades, and arched windows—in Venice; it became the standard for Venetian palaces for the next century. Sansovino's masterpiece, the Libreria Vecchia (Old Library, 1536-88), on the Piazzetta San Marco, is based on the ancient Roman Theater of Marcellus; Doric columns frame the ground-floor arcade and Ionic columns frame that of the second floor to create a long, majestic facade. As in all his buildings, the architecture is profusely ornamented with superb freestanding sculptures and deeply carved friezes. Sansovino was a strong influence on the later Venetian architects Andrea Palladio and Baldassare Longhena (1598-1682). </text>
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<text>Sansovino, Jacopo</text>
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<text>Sansovino, Andrea, real name Andrea Contucci (1460-1529), Italian sculptor and architect, born in Monte Sansovino, near Arezzo. He worked mainly in Florence, Rome, and Loreto. His major sculptures include the marble group the Baptism of Christ (1502) in the Baptistery in Florence and a series of reliefs (1514-27) for the Santa Casa sanctuary in Loreto. </text>
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<text>Sansovino, Andrea</text>
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<text>Samaras, Lucas (1936- ), Greek-American sculptor, born in Kastoría. His early work consisted of plaster-dipped rags molded into sculptural shapes. His best-known constructions consist of objects such as chairs, books, and ropes assembled into relationships and given menacing or horrific overtones by the addition of knives, razor blades, or hundreds of pointed pins. His later work has tended toward abstractions in which mirrors and photographs create illusory effects and include scores of photographic self-portraits. </text>
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<text>Samaras, Lucas</text>
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<text>Saint-Gaudens, Augustus (1848-1907), American sculptor, born in Dublin, and raised in New York City. From 1867 to 1875 he studied in Paris and in Rome, and, upon his return to the U.S. in 1875, he established a studio in New York City, executing figures and reliefs, principally in bronze. In 1876 he was commissioned to produce his first major public monument, the statue of American admiral David Glasgow Farragut in Madison Square, New York City. Subsequently, Saint-Gaudens executed a large number of public and private commissions, notably the portrait figure (1887) of Abraham Lincoln in Chicago; the Adams Memorial (1886-91) in Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, D.C.; and the famous equestrian statue (1903) of the American general William Tecumseh Sherman in Central Park, New York City. In 1965 his New Hampshire home and studio became the Saint-Gaudens National Historic Site. </text>
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<text>Saint-Gaudens, Augustus</text>
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<text>Ryder, Albert Pinkham (1847-1917), American visionary painter; he was born in New Bedford, Massachusetts, and many of his paintings reflect an obsession with the sea. About 1870 he settled in New York City and studied briefly at the National Academy of Design. Despite this, and his several short trips to Europe, his romantic, mystic style remained unaffected by outside influences. His technique, too, was idiosyncratic, involving thick applications of several coats of paint without allowing proper drying time, and heavy coats of varnish. For this reason, many of his paintings have badly deteriorated. Ryder lived reclusively, working painstakingly, often repainting a composition many times; thus, his works are difficult to date and his entire output consists of only about 160 canvases. His landscapes and seascapes include Toilers of the Sea (circa 1884, Metropolitan Museum, New York City) and The Race Track, or Death on a Pale Horse (1895, Cleveland Museum of Art). Later, he turned to scenes based on biblical or Shakespearean subjects—such as Jonah (1890s, National Collection of Fine Arts, Washington, D.C.) and Macbeth and the Witches (Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C.). His paintings, although small, are characterized by their luminosity and their balanced composition of forms and masses of subtle, monochromatic color. </text>
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<text>Ryder, Albert Pinkham</text>
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<text>Ruysdael, Salomon van (circa 1600-70), Dutch landscape painter of the baroque style, known for his peaceful scenes of the flat Dutch countryside. Born in Naarden, he joined the Haarlem painters' guild in 1623 and became its head in 1648. Ruysdael was a careful observer of mood, atmosphere, and detail. In composition, his works often feature a cart track or river winding diagonally across the canvas; occasionally, a vertical accent is added with a distant church spire or a sail on the horizon. An example of this is Ferry Near Gorcum (1646, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). </text>
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<text>Ruysdael, Salomon van</text>
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<text>Ruisdael, Jacob Isaackszoon van (1628?-82), Dutch painter and etcher, who is considered one of the greatest masters of Dutch landscape. Ruisdael, or Ruysdael, was born in Haarlem, the son of a painter and the nephew of the noted painter Salomon van Ruisdael (circa 1602-70). Jacob probably studied with both his father and his uncle. In 1648 he became a member of the painters guild in Haarlem; his early work shows the influence of another Haarlem landscape artist, Hendrick Cornelisz Vroom (1566-1640). From 1650 to 1652 Ruisdael traveled widely in Holland and western Germany, making studies of the landscapes of those regions. About 1655 he settled in Amsterdam, remaining until his death. Ruisdael often painted the flat and simple scenery characteristic of many parts of Holland, giving a quiet melancholy character to views of distant hamlets, water mills, dark sheets of water overhung by trees, and clouded skies. Representations of dark masses of foliage make the prevailing color of most of these canvases a dark green. The figures in them were painted by other artists. Among his most important works are mountain scenes with foaming waterfalls, and brooding romantic landscapes, such as Landscape with a Footbridge (1652, Frick Collection, New York City), Forest Entrance (1653, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam). More peaceful is the Windmill at Wijk (circa 1665; Rijksmuseum). Ruisdael was little regarded in his lifetime but greatly influenced later European landscape painters. </text>
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<text>Ruisdael, Jacob Isaackszoon van</text>
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card_136517.xml
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<text>Rublev, Andrei (circa 1360-c. 1430), the greatest Russian icon painter. Little is known of his life except that he eventually became a monk. He typically executed large cycles in collaboration with one or two other artists, frequently with the great Byzantine painter Theophanes the Greek, who may have been his teacher. Rublev is known to have collaborated in 1405 on the icons of the Cathedral of the Annunciation in Moscow and in 1408 on the frescoes and icons of the Cathedral of the Dormition at Vladimir; several of these icons are believed, on stylistic grounds, to be his alone. The only work authenticated as entirely his, however, is the celebrated icon of the Old Testament Trinity (circa 1410, Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow), picturing Abraham's three angels grouped in a two-dimensional arrangement. Rublev's style is characterized by deep, pure colors, flowing curved lines, gentle expressions, and a sense of intense spirituality. The first truly Russian painting style, it represents a refinement of the traditional, more angular Byzantine style and was widely imitated for two centuries. </text>
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<text>Rublev, Andrei</text>
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card_136341.xml
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<text>Rowlandson, Thomas (1756-1827), English artist and caricaturist, born in London, the son of a tradesman. He studied painting at the royal academies in Paris and London. About 1780 he turned from painting to illustration and especially to humorously conceived, vigorously executed caricatures of daily life. Such drawings as Vauxhall Gardens (1784) and A Coffee House (circa 1780-85) were very popular, as were his plates for The Miseries of Life (1808) and The Tour of Dr. Syntax (1812-20). </text>
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<text>Rowlandson, Thomas</text>
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card_135437.xml
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<text>Rouault, Georges Henri (1871-1958), French artist, whose somber portraits of sorrowful kings, Christs, and clowns made him an early exponent of Fauvism and expressionism. He is often considered the greatest modern religious painter. Born in Paris, Rouault was apprenticed to a maker of stained glass, then attended the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where he studied with the painter Gustave Moreau. In 1898 he was appointed curator of the newly established Gustave Moreau Museum in Paris. After imitating Moreau, Rouault went on to develop his own distinctive painting style, characterized by clear and glowing reds, blues, and greens; use of impasto (thick pigment); and heavy black outline suggestive of the leading in stained-glass windows. In 1905 he exhibited with the Fauves. His choice of such themes as the Passion of Christ, corrupt judges, and prostitutes reflects his devout Roman Catholicism. His major works include Three Judges (1913) and Christ Mocked by Soldiers (1932, Museum of Modern Art, New York City), The Old King (1936, Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), and Head of a Clown (1940-48, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). He also made many outstanding prints. Among his last great works was his design, in 1948, for the windows of the church in Plateau d'Assy. </text>
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<text>Rouault, Georges Henri</text>
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card_135141.xml
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<text> Rothko, Mark (1903-70), American painter, of the abstract expressionist school. Rothko, whose original surname was Rothkovich, was born in Dvinsk, Russia (now Daugavpils, Latvia) and was brought to the United States in 1913. He later attended Yale University and studied briefly at the Art Students League in New York City but was largely self-taught as an artist. He had his first one-man show in New York City in 1933. Rothko's work in the 1930s belonged to the social realist movement. In the 1940s, influenced by surrealism, he developed a more imaginative approach that drew on primitive religion, as for example, Baptismal Scene (1945, Whitney Museum, New York City). Gradually his work became nonobjective, consisting of large, hazily defined rectangles of color—murky, delicate, or glowing—used to convey emotion. They belong to the color-field branch of abstract expressionism. Examples include Number 10 (1950, Museum of Modern Art, New York City) and Four Darks in Red (1958, Whitney Museum). For several years after his death, Rothko's estate was the subject of legal dispute. His executors were accused of selling his works to Marlborough Galleries, New York City, at prices disadvantageous to his heirs. In 1975 a Manhattan surrogate court removed the executors, fining them and the gallery $9,252,000. </text>
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<text>Rothko, Mark</text>
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card_134658.xml
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<text>Rosso Fiorentino, real name Giovanni Battista di Jacopo di Guasparre (1494-1540), Italian painter. His early works helped define the first phase of Mannerism. A more developed Mannerist style is exhibited in his Descent from the Cross (1521, Pinacoteca Communale, Volterra, Italy); its idiosyncratic modeling and perspective, violent colors, and harsh lighting produce the disturbing effect characteristic of much 16th-century Italian art. After about 1524, however, Rosso's figures became more solid and sculptural—as in the Dead Christ with Angels (1525-26, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). From 1530 to his death Rosso worked on the decoration of the Chateau de Fontainebleau in France, where, with the Bolognese painter Francesco Primaticcio, he introduced a more subdued Mannerist style in keeping with courtly French taste. </text>
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<text>Rosso Fiorentino</text>
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card_134434.xml
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<text>Rossetti, Dante Gabriel (1828-82), English poet and painter who was a leading member of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood devoted to reviving English art through medieval inspiration. He was born Gabriel Charles Dante Rossetti in London on May 12, 1828, son of the Italian-born poet Gabriele Rossetti (1783-1854). He was educated there at King's College and the Royal Academy. At the academy he met the painters Sir John Everett Millais and Holman Hunt, with whom he founded the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Rossetti was strongly attracted to the dramatic and the supernatural. Among his earliest paintings was a scene of the annunciation, Ecce Ancilla Domini (1850, Tate Gallery, London). His art subsequently developed through other phases, in which the sense of human beauty, intensity of abstract expression, and richness of color were leading elements. Rossetti began writing poetry about the same time that he took definitely to the study of painting. Two of his best-known poems, The Portrait and The Blessed Damozel, were written in 1842. He made a number of translations from Dante and other Italian writers, published in 1861 as The Early Italian Poets. Rossetti's later years were marred by sorrow and mental depression, relieved only by the creative play of his mind. In 1860 he had married a milliner, Elizabeth Eleanor Siddal, whose beauty he immortalized in many of his best-known paintings, such as Mary Magdalene at the House of Simon the Pharisee (1858, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge). Within two years the invalid Elizabeth died, and Rossetti was grief stricken by the tragedy. In addition he was troubled by a bitter attack that had been made on the morality of his poems in an article entitled “The Fleshy School of Poetry,” published in The Contemporary Review in October 1871. Rossetti's rebuttal was published as “The Stealthy School of Criticism” in the Athenaeum in December 1871. Rossetti continued almost to the last to produce paintings and poems. In 1881 he published Ballads and Sonnets, which contained some of his finest work, “Rose Mary,” “The White Ship,” “The King's Tragedy,” and the sonnet sequence The House of Life. Of his later paintings, which are murky and dreamlike, two of the best known are Dante's Dream (1871, Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool) and Proserpina (1874, Tate Gallery, London). He died in Berchington on April 10, 1882. </text>
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<text>Rossetti, Dante Gabriel</text>
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card_134388.xml
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<text>Rossellino, family of Florentine sculptors and architects. The following two members were outstanding. Bernardo Rossellino(1409-64), born probably in Florence. He worked chiefly as an architect and was responsible for restorations of the Church of San Francesco in Assisi and many churches and palaces in Rome, Siena, Florence, and other cities. His most famous work is the tomb (begun 1444) of the Florentine historian Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444) in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. Antonio Rossellino(1427-79), brother and pupil of Bernardo. He created many statues, monuments, and fountains in Florence. Antonio's best-known work is the tomb (1461-66) of a Portuguese cardinal in the Church of San Miniato al Monte, Florence. His three panels (1473), carved in high relief, for the bishop's throne of Prato Cathedral are much admired, as is his statue Young Saint John the Baptist (circa 1470) in the National Gallery, Washington, D.C. </text>
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<text>Rossellino</text>
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card_133887.xml
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<text>Rosa, Salvator (1615-73), Italian baroque painter and etcher, active principally in Rome and Florence. He also achieved considerable contemporary renown as an actor, musician, and satirical poet. Rosa's bold romantic imagination produced dramatic landscapes featuring wild settings, with towering rocky crags and bare splintered tree trunks, seen in savage lightning storms, and peopled by bandits and witches. These paintings were highly esteemed by the artists and writers of the romantic movement, especially in England, a century and a half later. He also painted fiery and dynamic battle scenes, and later in his career turned to large historical and religious compositions that attempted to rival those of contemporary Roman artists; these, however, were less imaginative and successful. </text>
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<text>Rosa, Salvator</text>
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card_133440.xml
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<text>Romney, George (1734-1802), English painter, considered one of the great 18th-century English portraitists, ranking with Thomas Gainsborough, Sir Thomas Lawrence, Sir Henry Raeburn, and Sir Joshua Reynolds. He was born in Dalton-in-Furness, Lancashire. Until he was 21, Romney worked for his father, a cabinetmaker. In 1755 he was apprenticed to the British portrait painter Christopher Steele (flourished 1756). Romney briefly visited France and Italy to study the old masters. He opened his own studio in London in 1762 and quickly gained acclaim for his flattering portraits of British society. He idealized his aristocratic subjects and placed them in neoclassical settings. His most famous sitter, the English beauty Emma Hamilton, was the subject of more than 50 portraits and innumerable sketches, as for example, Lady Hamilton as Psyche (1782-85, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). In all, Romney executed more than 2000 portraits. Noteworthy are Mrs. Carwardine and Son (1775, Lord Hillingdon Collection) and Sir Christopher and Lady Sykes (1786, Sledmere, Yorkshire). He also did some historical paintings. </text>
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<text>Romney, George</text>
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card_133240.xml
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<text>Rockwell, Norman (1894-1978), American painter and illustrator, best known as a painter of magazine covers and illustrations for such prominent American periodicals as the Saturday Evening Post, the Ladies' Home Journal, and Look. He was born in New York City, and trained there at the Art Students League. His favorite subjects were everyday, often humorous, scenes which he executed with minute attention to detail so realistically that his paintings often resemble photographs. He also designed many posters and painted a famous series The Four Freedoms, based on principles pronounced by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1941, and incorporated into the Atlantic Charter. His autobiography, My Adventures as an Illustrator, was published in 1959. </text>
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<text>Rockwell, Norman</text>
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card_132784.xml
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<text>Robinson, Boardman (1876-1952), American cartoonist and painter, born in Somerset, Nova Scotia, Canada. He first became famous as an illustrator and cartoonist for various New York City newspapers, including the Tribune, and for magazines such as Harpers; he also illustrated several books. From 1919 to 1930 he taught at the Art Students League, in New York City. Robinson is also known for his mural paintings, especially those he executed at Rockefeller Center, New York City. </text>
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<text>Robinson, Boardman</text>
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card_132373.xml
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<text>Robert, Hubert (1733-1808), French painter, known for his landscapes and romantic views of classical ruins. An 11-year stay in Italy made him familiar with the temples, fountains, porticoes, and other settings that formed the basis of his art. He also painted many contemporary French scenes and views; these are of historical as well as artistic importance for the glimpses they offer of 18th-century life in and around Paris. </text>
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<text>Robert, Hubert</text>
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card_132339.xml
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<text>Robbia, name of an Italian family of Renaissance artists, known especially for their sculpture and ceramics, which flourished in Florence for nearly 150 years. Luca Della Robbia(1400?-82), originated glazed terra-cotta bas-reliefs, usually with white figures on a blue ground. He was born in Florence and lived all his life there. His delicate reliefs were mostly of religious subjects; those of the Madonna are especially notable. Luca initially worked in white and blue but later added glazes of many colors, especially green and yellow on a wreath of fruits and flowers around the figures. His terra-cottas were individual pieces of art, built into walls to serve in architectural contexts. Between 1431 and 1438 Luca designed and executed for the cathedral in Florence the famous Singing Gallery, ten marble panels in high relief, with groups of children singing, dancing, and playing musical instruments. Another great work by Luca was a bronze door, with ten panels of figures in relief, for the sacristy of the cathedral in Florence (1464-69). In marble he also sculptured, in 1457-58, the tomb of Federighi, bishop of Fiesole. Luca founded a family workshop, which continued to make fine terra-cottas into the 16th century. Andrea Della Robbia(1437-1528), Luca's nephew, was the most important of his successors. Trained by his uncle in both marble and ceramics, Andrea specialized in the creation of narrative sculpture. His best-known work is the Foundling Children (1463-66), ten tondos, or round sculptures, depicting swaddled infants, on the facade of Spedale degli Innocenti, Florence. Andrea's two sons, Giovanni della Robbia (1469?-1529?) and Girolamo della Robbia (1488-1566), also became skilled terra-cotta sculptors; however, their work was inferior to that of their father and uncle. Girolamo was an architect and sculptor; he moved to France and worked for many years near Paris. </text>
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<text>Robbia</text>
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card_131934.xml
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<text>Rivers, Larry (1923- ), American painter and sculptor, born in New York City. His realistic and semirealistic works of the 1950s and '60s—often based on commonplace subject matter, as in his Dutch Masters series (1963, Dwan Gallery, New York City), based on cigar-box art—were an early manifestation of pop art. His work after 1963, influenced by constructivism, consisted of collages, prints, molded canvases, and painted sculptures. </text>
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<text>Rivers, Larry</text>
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card_131798.xml
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<text>Rigaud, Hyacinthe (1659-1743), French painter, who was the most important portraitist in the reign of King Louis XIV. His instinct for impressive poses and grand presentations precisely suited the tastes of the royal personages, ambassadors, clerics, courtiers, and financiers who sat for him. His passion for truth made his likenesses very exact, and his costuming and background details were precise records of contemporaneous fashions. Rigaud's best-known work is his regal portrait, Louis XIV (1701, Louvre, Paris), which combines strong characterization with sumptuous decoration in a magnificently finished work. </text>
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<text>Rigaud, Hyacinthe</text>
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card_130587.xml
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<text>Riemenschneider, Tilman (circa 1460-1531), German sculptor, one of the last great artists in the German Gothic tradition. He was active principally in Würzburg and headed a workshop that produced carved altarpieces, tomb sculpture, and freestanding pieces. His individualist manner, although it made use of the common Late Gothic characteristics of long lines, elegant drapery, and crisp angles and curves, had a softness and delicacy that avoided the exaggerated sharpness of much contemporary work. One of his masterpieces is the Altar of the Virgin (circa 1501, Creglingen, Germany), which combines relief carvings illustrating the life of the Virgin with a central sculptural representation of the Assumption. The solid, broad forms of some of his late work indicate the possible influence of Italian Renaissance sculpture, which was soon to supplant the Gothic style. </text>
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<text>Riemenschneider, Tilman</text>
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card_130321.xml
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<text>Ribera, Jusepe de (1591-1652), Spanish painter, who inaugurated the tradition of realism in Spanish art. Active mainly in Naples, which was then a possession of the Spanish crown, Ribera concentrated on religious subjects but also became the first Spanish painter to depict mythological themes. His early works were influenced by the dramatic chiaroscuro (contrasts of light and shadow) of the Italian painter Caravaggio and by the loose expressive brushwork of the Venetian painter Titian. His taste gravitated toward gloomy, severe, even horrible subjects—particularly martyrdoms and scenes of torture such as St. Sebastian Transfixed with Arrows (circa 1635, Prado, Madrid)—which he imbued with dramatic emotional intensity. In his later works he used freer composition and lighter colors, creating softly atmospheric renderings in which the personal, inner life of the characters was the most important element. This ability to portray the character of the individual, so evident in paintings such as the Clubfooted Boy (1652, Louvre, Paris), marked a break with the idealizations of the Mannerist style and was Ribera's principal legacy to later Spanish art. </text>
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<text>Ribera, Jusepe de</text>
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card_130227.xml
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<text>Reynolds, Sir Joshua (1723-92), English painter in the Grand Manner, who was the foremost portraitist of his day. Reynolds was born in Plympton, Devonshire, on July 16, 1723, the son of a cleric. He learned portraiture from a painter in London and in 1749 sailed to the Mediterranean with Commodore Augustus Keppel (1725-86). After three years traveling in Italy he returned to London, where he soon attracted notice by his portraits of prominent persons. He came to be the first English painter to achieve social recognition for his artistic achievements. In 1764 Reynolds founded the Literary Club, which included essayist and critic Samuel Johnson, actor David Garrick, statesman Edmund Burke, writer Oliver Goldsmith, writer James Boswell, and dramatist Richard Brinsley Sheridan. When the Royal Academy of Arts was instituted in 1768, Reynolds was elected president and was knighted. In 1769 he delivered the first of his annual Discourses (pub. 1778) to the students of the academy in which he set forth the idealistic, moralizing principles of academic art. In 1784 he succeeded Allan Ramsay (1713-84) as painter to the king; in the same year he exhibited his portrait of the English actor Sarah Siddons as the Tragic Muse (1784, Huntington Art Gallery, San Marino, California), probably his greatest portrait. Other well-known paintings are Nelly O'Brien (1760-62, Wallace Collection, London), Lady Sarah Bunbury (1765, Chicago Art Institute), Heads of Angels (1787, Tate Gallery, London), and Age of Innocence (1788, Tate Gallery). Reynolds is credited with more than 2000 portraits. Stylistically, he was influenced by Michelangelo and the Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens. Reynolds's portraits were distinguished by calm dignity, classical allusions, rich color, and realistic portrayal of character. Unfortunately, his use of bitumen (or asphalt) and experimental pigments made some of his colors fade prematurely. Nevertheless, his portraits form an epitome of London society of his day. He died in London on February 23, 1792. </text>
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<text>Reynolds, Sir Joshua</text>
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card_172945.xml
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<text>Revere, Paul (1735-1818), American silversmith, engraver, and patriot, whose efforts as a courier for the revolution ary cause made him a folk hero. The son of a silversmith, he was born in Boston, on Jan. 1, 1735. While still a young man he acquired a reputation as a designer and maker of elegant silverware; his finely wrought tankards, bowls, and pitchers were much prized, and his tea sets served the Boston aristocracy for a century (only one is known to have survived complete). Revere also turned his manual dexterity to the making of artificial teeth, surgical instruments, and engraved printing plates. His most famous engraving, depicting the 1770 Boston Massacre, put him in the forefront of anti-British propagandists. With other patriots, he took part in the Boston Tea Party in 1773. When the fighting began, he carried messages for the revolution aries of the area. The historic midnight ride of April 18, 1775, was made by Revere and two others from Boston to Concord to warn of the approach of British troops. Revere’s role is exaggerated in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s ballad “Paul Revere’s Ride”; actually, British scouts detained him en route, but one of the others got through to the patriots in time.Revere also engraved printing plates and printed money for the Massachusetts Congress and designed the first official seal for the united cOlonies as well as the seal still used by Massachusetts. He established a gunpowder mill at Canton, Mass., and served as a major of militia in Boston after the British withdrew (1776). After the war Revere operated a brass foundry and manufac-tured sheet copper at Canton, besides continuing his successful trade as a silversmith. He died May 10, 1818, in Boston.</text>
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card_130022.xml
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<text>Repin, Ilya Yefimovich (1844-1930), Russian painter, born in Chuguyev, considered the outstanding realist of his generation. Although he was a good drafter and a skilled colorist, he was known mainly for his subject matter: His deeply moving scenes of common people were an indictment of the czarist regime. His Volga Boatmen (1873, Russian State Museum, Saint Petersburg), showing bargemen harnessed together like beasts of burden, made him famous. He went on to paint large historical subjects, as well as thoughtful portraits of the great Russian composers and writers. His work became the model for mid-20th-century Soviet socialist realism. </text>
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<text>Repin, Ilya Yefimovich</text>
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card_129720.xml
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<text>Reni, Guido (1575-1642), Italian painter of popular religious works and critically acclaimed mythological scenes. He was born in Bologna and began to study painting at the age of nine, and about 1595 he became a pupil of the Carracci family of Bolognese painters. Between 1600 and 1614 Reni worked mainly in Rome, where he painted the Crucifixion of Saint Peter (1601-03, Vatican). He worked (1608-09) on frescoes in San Gregorio Magno al Cielo, Rome, and in 1613 he executed his most renowned work, the ceiling fresco Phoebus and the Hours, Preceded by Aurora, in the Rospigliosi Palace, Rome. Reni was strongly influenced by classical art, and the realistic style of his early period contrasted with the exuberant baroque style of his contemporaries. During his final years, he returned to Bologna, where he established his own academy. He abandoned realism for a softer, more sentimental style. </text>
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<text>Reni, Guido</text>
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card_129222.xml
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<text>Remington, Frederic (1861-1909), American painter, sculptor, and writer, born in Canton, New York, and educated at the Art Students League, New York City. Remington is famous for the lively scenes, in paint and in bronze, of the old West that form the subject matter of most of his works. In the Spanish-American War he served as a war correspondent and artist. Among his paintings, admired for their forthright and unsentimental naturalism, are The Outlier (1909, Brooklyn Museum, New York City) and Cavalry Charge on the Southern Plains (1907, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). In 1895 Remington began to make clay models of his rugged subjects, which were subsequently cast in bronze. His first, Bronco Buster (1895, one casting in New-York Historical Society, New York City) displays the vigor and sense of movement of his paintings. His subsequent bronzes, such as Comin' Through the Rye (1902, Metropolitan Museum), in which four cowhands on horseback charge at the observer in glee, are daring for their technical skill in suspending large figures on slim supports—in this case on the hooves of the horses. Among the books he wrote and illustrated are Pony Tracks (1895), Crooked Trails (1898), and The Way of an Indian (1906). </text>
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<text>Remington, Frederic</text>
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<text>Reinhardt, Ad (1913-67), American abstract painter, born in Buffalo, New York. He was a strong advocate of purity in abstract art and throughout his career his work showed a steady tendency toward simplification. Starting in the late 1930s with hard-edged geometric compositions in colors of Oriental richness, he had by 1953 limited himself to rectilinear designs in barely distinguishable tones of black. From 1960 on, he painted his well-known square black trisected canvases—his “ultimate” paintings. </text>
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<text>Reinhardt, Ad</text>
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card_128331.xml
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<text>Redon, Odilon (1840-1916), French painter and lithographer, born in Bordeaux. His albums of lithographs, such as Dans le rêve (In the Dream, 1879) and La nuit (Night, 1886), show a dramatic range from deep blacks to vivid whites. In such works Redon, like his friends the symbolist writers, strove to give form to ideas, especially his own thoughts, emotions, and dreams. He was also inspired by literature and biology. After 1890 he turned to oils and pastels. His brilliantly colored flowers, landscapes, and literary subjects have a romantic, dreamlike quality, as, for example, Vase of Flowers (1914, Museum of Modern Art, New York City) and Orpheus (1903, Cleveland Museum of Art). Redon is considered a precursor of surrealism. </text>
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<text>Redon, Odilon</text>
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card_128024.xml
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<text>Ray, Man (1890-1976), American painter, photographer, and leading figure in the artistic avant-garde in Paris of the 1920s. He was born in Philadelphia, studied at the National Academy of Design in New York City, and held his first one-man show of paintings in 1912. With his friend, the French painter Marcel Duchamp, he helped to found the New York City Dada group in 1917. Under Duchamp's influence, he began to work with new materials and techniques, for example, painting with an airbrush on glass and other surfaces. His “ready-mades”—such as his flatiron with tacks projecting from the bottom called The Gift (1921, Museum of Modern Art, New York City)—were made from everyday manufactured objects. He also pioneered in kinetic works, which have moving parts. Going to Paris in 1921, he developed “Rayographs,” abstract images made by placing objects on light-sensitive surfaces. He also became involved in surrealism and made art films, including L'Étoile de Mer (1928). The expressive possibilities of photography interested him increasingly, and in California from 1940 to 1946 he taught the subject. In later years in France, he experimented with new ways of making color prints, and he published an autobiography, Self Portrait (1963). </text>
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card_127880.xml
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<text> Rauschenberg, Robert (1925- ), American painter, who played an important role in the transition from abstract expressionism to pop art. Born in Port Arthur, Texas, he studied art in Paris and at several schools in the U.S. His early works were boxed studies containing blueprints and paintings in black and white. During the early 1950s he produced collage paintings in which freely brushed expressionist canvases were overlaid with bits and pieces of actual textiles, photographs, and torn newspaper clippings. In 1955, he made his first “combines,” three-dimensional assemblages in which paintings were combined with objects of popular culture—traffic signs, light bulbs, Coca-Cola bottles, radios—to create ironic or ridiculous effects. The best known of these, Monogram (1955-59, Moderna Museet, Stockholm), features a stuffed goat with an automobile tire around its middle. These hybrid works, emphasizing mass-production objects, had a strong influence on the pop art movement of the 1960s. After 1962, Rauschenberg experimented with silk-screen prints—first in black and white, later in color—in which repetition of imagery played a strong role. Much of his work during the 1970s and '80s was devoted to collages, lithographs, and other forms of the graphic arts, including photography. Rauschenberg Photographs appeared in 1981. </text>
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<text>Rauschenberg, Robert</text>
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card_127623.xml
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<text> Raphael (1483-1520), Italian Renaissance painter, considered one of the greatest and most popular artists of all time. Raphael was born Raffaello Santi or Raffaello Sanzio in Urbino on April 6, 1483, and received his early training in art from his father, the painter Giovanni Santi (1435?-94). According to many art historians, he also studied with Timoteo Viti (1467-1523) at Urbino, executing under his influence a number of works of miniaturelike delicacy and poetic atmosphere, including Apollo and Marsyas (Louvre, Paris) and The Knight's Dream (circa 1501, National Gallery, London). In 1499 he went to Perugia, in Umbria, and became a student and assistant of the painter Perugino. Raphael imitated his master closely; their paintings of this period are executed in styles so similar that art historians have found it difficult to determine which were painted by Raphael. Among Raphael's independent works executed at Perugia are two large-scale paintings, the celebrated Sposalizio, or Marriage of the Virgin (1504, Brera Gallery, Milan), and Crucifixion (circa 1503, National Gallery, London). Florentine Period In 1504 Raphael moved to Florence, where he studied the work of such established painters of the time as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Fra Bartolommeo, learning their methods of representing the play of light and shade, anatomy, and dramatic action. At this time he made a transition from the typical style of the Umbrian school, with its emphasis on perspective and rigidly geometrical composition, to a more animated, informal manner of painting. His development during the Florentine period can best be traced in his numerous Madonnas. The earliest example, still Umbrian in inspiration, is the Madonna del Granduca (1504-05, Pitti Palace, Florence). Later examples, showing the influence of Leonardo in serenity of expression and composition, include the well-known La Belle Jardinière (1507-08, Louvre) and the Madonna of the Goldfinch (1505, Uffizi Gallery, Florence). The last of his Madonnas executed at Florence, the Madonna del Baldacchino (1508, Pitti Palace), a monumental altarpiece, is similar in style to the work of Fra Bartolommeo. Raphael's most important commissions during his stay in Florence came from Umbria. His most original composition of this period is the Entombment of Christ (1507, Borghese Gallery, Rome), an altarpiece that nevertheless shows the strong influence of Michelangelo in the postures and anatomical development of the figures. Roman PeriodIn 1508 Raphael was called to Rome by Pope Julius II and commissioned to execute frescoes in four small stanze, or rooms, of the Palace of the Vatican. The walls of the first room, the Stanza della Segnatura (1509-11), are decorated with scenes elaborating ideas suggested by personifications of Theology, Philosophy, Poetry, and Justice, which appear on the ceiling. On the wall under Theology is the Disputà, representing a group discussing the mystery of the Trinity. The famous School of Athens, on the wall beneath Philosophy, portrays a spacious architectural hall in which Plato, Aristotle, and other ancient philosophers are engaged in discourse. On the wall under Poetry is the celebrated Parnassus, in which the Greek god Apollo appears surrounded by the Muses and the great poets. The second Vatican chamber, the Stanza d'Eliodoro (1512-14), painted with the aid of Raphael's assistants, contains scenes representing the triumph of the Roman Catholic church over its enemies. After the death of Pope Julius II in 1513, and the accession of Leo X, Raphael's influence and responsibilities increased. He was made chief architect of Saint Peter's Basilica in 1514, and a year later was appointed director of all the excavations of antiquities in and near Rome. Because of his many activities, only part of the third room of the Vatican Palace, the Stanza del Incendio (1514-17), was painted by him, and he provided merely the designs for the fourth chamber, the Sala Constantina. During this period he also designed ten tapestries illustrating the acts of Christ's apostles for the Sistine Chapel; the cartoons, or drawings, for these are now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Raphael also devised the architecture and decorations of the Chigi Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo and the decorations of the Villa Farnesina, which include the Triumph of Galatea (circa 1513). In addition to these major undertakings, he executed a number of easel paintings, including a portrait of Julius II (1511-12), a series of Madonnas, and the world-famous Sistine Madonna (circa 1514, Gemäldegalerie, Dresden). Other religious paintings during this period include the Transfiguration (1517-20, Vatican), completed posthumously by the most notable of Raphael's many followers, Giulio Romano. Raphael died in Rome on his 37th birthday, April 6, 1520. </text>
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<text>Raphael</text>
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card_127337.xml
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<text>Raimondi, Marcantonio (circa 1480-c. 1534), Italian Renaissance engraver, born near Bologna. Raimondi worked as a silversmith before turning to engraving designs on metal plates for printing, the art in which he achieved fame. The principal influence on his style was the work of the great German master Albrecht Dürer, whose engravings Raimondi copied frequently, even adding Dürer's signature. About 1510 Raimondi settled in Rome, and for ten years he worked in close association with the Italian painter Raphael, engraving Raphael's designs and paintings; these represent Raimondi's finest work. After Raphael's death in 1520, Raimondi engraved the works of Raphael's followers, chiefly those of the Italian Mannerist painter Giulio Romano. </text>
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<text>Raimondi, Marcantonio</text>
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card_126981.xml
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<text>Raeburn, Sir Henry (1756-1823), Scottish portrait painter, whose works are characterized by their “square touch” brushstroke style, dark backgrounds, and lack of preliminary drawing. He was born in Stockbridge, near Edinburgh. An orphan, he was apprenticed to a goldsmith and taught himself to paint, progressing from miniatures to full-size canvases. After marrying an affluent widow in 1780 he was able to devote himself fully to portrait painting. In 1787 he returned to Edinburgh from two years in Italy and soon gained recognition as a portraitist of the Scottish upper class. Raeburn's work shows the influence of the contemporary English portrait painter Sir Joshua Reynolds, whom he met; Raeburn has been called the Scottish Reynolds. In 1815 he became a member of the Royal Academy; in 1822 he was knighted. Among his best-known works are The Rev. Robert Walker Skating (1784) and The McNab (1803-13), both in the National Gallery, Edinburgh, and Miss Eleanor Urquhart Raeburn (1795?, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.). </text>
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<text>Raeburn, Sir Henry</text>
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card_126865.xml
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<text>Rackham, Arthur (1867-1939), English illustrator and watercolor painter, born in London. He studied at the Lambeth Art School, where he specialized in illustrating fantasy, and eventually became one of the foremost illustrators of his time. His work appeared in such periodicals as Punch and, especially, in new editions of literary classics. They include Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens by Sir James M. Barrie, in 1906; Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865), by Lewis Carroll, in 1907; Fairy Tales (1812), by the German authors the Grimm brothers, in 1909; A Christmas Carol (1843), by Charles Dickens, in 1915; The Compleat Angler (1633), by the English essayist Izaak Walton, in 1931; and several works by Shakespeare. Rackham's style, delicate, charming, and fanciful, also has a pervading element of the slightly sinister. </text>
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<text>Rackham, Arthur</text>
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card_126541.xml
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<text>Pyle, Howard (1853-1911), American illustrator, teacher, and writer, born in Wilmington, Delaware. His stories and illustrations for Harper's Weekly and other periodicals established his reputation. From 1894 to 1900 he was director of illustration at the Drexel Institute of Technology, Philadelphia. In 1900 he established in Wilmington the Howard Pyle School of Art, where he conducted free courses in illustration. Pyle's work often deals with American history and medieval folklore; his illustrations feature a realistic style and a bold line. </text>
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<text>Pyle, Howard</text>
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card_126195.xml
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<text>Pugin, Augustus Welby Northmore (1812-52), English architect and furniture designer, who championed the 19th-century Gothic Revival in England. His first and most influential work was his quasi-ecclesiastical interior and exterior decoration and furniture for the new Houses of Parliament (begun 1836) in London, designed by the British architect Sir Charles Barry. This work, along with his 1836 treatise Contrasts on the Gothic style, earned him many commissions, and he executed a large number of churches, town and country houses, and municipal and collegiate buildings. Pugin's devotion to the Gothic manner was based more on his reactionary, somewhat fanatical, religious convictions than on any inherent understanding of Gothic architecture itself; his executed designs tended to be stiff and two-dimensional. His influence on Victorian English architecture and interior design was derived mainly from his books and published drawings. </text>
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<text>Pugin, Augustus Welby Northmore</text>
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<text>Primaticcio, Francesco (1504-70), Italian painter, decorator, and architect, active mainly in France. There he supervised the decoration of the Château de Fontainebleau under Francis I and was supervisor of buildings under the succeeding monarchs, Henry II and Charles IX. Working with his countryman, the Mannerist painter Rosso Fiorentino, Primaticcio exercised a decisive influence over contemporary French art. They moderated the violent distortions of Italian Mannerism and created a more elegant, indigenous variant of the style. Few of Primaticcio's works remain, but his drawings for the project and the surviving stucco reliefs at Fontainebleau—sinuous nude figures of mythological beings—indicate his refined sensuality. </text>
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<text>Primaticcio, Francesco</text>
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card_124958.xml
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<text>Prendergast, Maurice Brazil (1859-1924), American painter, born in Boston, and trained in art as a painter of advertising placards in Boston and later in France and Italy. He returned to Boston in 1900. In 1914 he moved to New York City, where he spent the remainder of his life. His work is characterized by rich, powerful color applied in dots and in short brushstrokes. Many of his subjects are landscapes with figures, as for example, Central Park (1901, Whitney Museum, New York City). A number are of the seashore. Others include Boston street scenes and sketches of Neapolitan and Venetian life. </text>
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<text>Prendergast, Maurice Brazil</text>
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card_124838.xml
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<text> Praxiteles (flourished 4th century bc), Greek sculptor, considered the greatest sculptor of his time. He is said to have lived in Athens about 360 bc. Praxiteles worked almost entirely in marble. Most scholars agree that one original work of his is extant, the Hermes with the Infant Dionysus (circa 340 bc), discovered in 1877 during the excavation of the Temple of Hera at Olympia, in Greece, where it had been seen in ancient times by the Roman traveler and chronicler Pausanias. It is now at the Archaeological Museum there. His other work is known only through Roman copies. The most famous is the Aphrodite of Cnidus (Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican City). The work of Praxiteles shows a humanization in the ideals of the Attic period of Greek art. His subjects are either human beings or the more youthful and less awesome deities, such as Aphrodite, goddess of love, Apollo, god of music and prophecy, and Hermes, messenger of the gods. His portraits of divinities do not possess the superhuman qualities of earlier Greek works, but instead are wrought with grace and charm. Praxiteles was especially celebrated for his satyrs; best known is the Resting Satyr (Roman copy, Museo Capitolino, Rome), immortalized by the American writer Nathaniel Hawthorne in The Marble Faun (1860). </text>
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<text>Praxiteles</text>
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card_124562.xml
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<text>Powers, Hiram (1805-73), American sculptor, born near Woodstock, Vermont. His skill in making models for a wax museum attracted attention, and he received numerous commissions for portrait busts. In 1837 Powers went to Florence, Italy, where he spent the rest of his life. In 1843 he completed his best-known work, Greek Slave, of which many replicas were made. A marble figure of a nude woman in chains leaning against a draped pillar, it became one of the most celebrated statues of the time. He also made a number of statues of American statesmen, including Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson for the Capitol, Washington, D.C. </text>
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<text>Powers, Hiram</text>
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card_124296.xml
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<text>Potter, (Helen) Beatrix (1866-1943), English writer and illustrator of children's books, born in London, and privately educated. During most of her adult life, she lived in a farm cottage in Sawrey, Westmoreland County, where she kept many animals as pets. Unsuccessful in attempts to publish her serious botanical work (watercolor studies of fungi), she wrote (1893) and published privately (1900) for an invalid child The Tale of Peter Rabbit. This story about the first of many animal characters she was to create became a children's classic throughout the world. Other diminutive animal characters created by her include Benjamin Bunny, Jemima Puddle-Duck, and Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle. Inseparable from her whimsical tales are her delicate but exact and detailed watercolor illustrations depicting her characters in domestic scenes. Potter's other works include The Tailor of Gloucester (1902) and The Tale of Tom Kitten (1907). Interested in the preservation of the natural landscape, she bequeathed her property in Sawrey to the National Trust, which also maintains her home as a museum. </text>
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<text>Potter, Beatrix</text>
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card_123860.xml
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<text>Pontormo, Jacopo da, real name Jacopo Carrucci (1494-1557), Italian painter, born in Pontormo, who worked chiefly in Florence. He was initially influenced by the calm, balanced High Renaissance styles of Piero di Cosimo and Leonardo da Vinci and of Andrea del Sarto, whom he assisted. These influences shaped such early works (1514-15) as the Visitation, Madonna with Four Saints, and other frescoes for the Florentine church of SS Annunziata. From 1518 on, Pontormo did much work for the Medici, including frescoes for their villa at Poggio and, later, their family church, San Lorenzo. About 1518 he developed a new Mannerist style, partly inspired by Michelangelo and Albrecht Dürer, marked by elongated forms, heightened emotion, and tension between figures and space. Among his Mannerist works are Joseph in Egypt (1518?, National Gallery, London), Holy Family and Saints (circa 1518, San Michele, Vizdomini), and the Deposition (1526, Santa Felicità). He also did portraits, such as Alessandro de Medici (circa 1525, Pinacoteca Nazionale, Lucca). </text>
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<text>Pontormo, Jacopo da</text>
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<text>Polygnotus, Greek painter, who dominated Athenian art in the period between 470 and 450 bc. Although none of his paintings remains, contemporary descriptions establish that he was an unusually influential innovator. He introduced landscape and simple perspective into painting, freed composition from the convention of placing figures along a rigid baseline, and broke away from the rigidity of archaic Greek art by expressing emotion in the features of the face. </text>
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<text>Polygnotus</text>
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card_123192.xml
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<text>Polyclitus (flourished about 450-420 bc), Greek sculptor of the Classical Period. He was born in Argos or Sicyon. Polyclitus (Polycleitus) made a colossal gold and ivory statue of Hera, goddess of marriage and childbirth, which stood in the temple of Hera near Argos, but he was most renowned for his bronze statues of human subjects. He made a careful study of the proportions of the human body and is said to have written the Canon, a treatise on the subject. His figures are marked by powerful muscular frames, and the faces are square rather than oval, with broad brows, straight noses, and small chins, the lines of which are sharply defined. He was praised by his contemporaries for his technical skill, delicacy of finish, and beauty of line. Marble replicas exist of several of his famous statues, such as the Doryphorus, or youth carrying a spear (Naples Museum); the Diadumenus, or youth binding a fillet around his brow (National Museum, Athens); and the Amazon (Metropolitan Museum, New York City). </text>
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<text>Polyclitus</text>
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<text> Pollock, (Paul) Jackson (1912-56), American painter, who was a leader of the abstract expressionist movement. He was born in Cody, Wyoming, and studied at the Art Students League, New York City, with Thomas Hart Benton. Pollock spent several years traveling around the country and sketching. In the late 1930s and early '40s he worked in New York City on the WPA Federal Art Project. His early paintings, in the naturalistic style of Benton, depict the American scene realistically. Between 1943 and 1947 Pollock adopted a freer and more abstract style, as in The She-Wolf (1943, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). After 1947 Pollock worked as an abstract expressionist, developing the action-painting technique in which the artist drips paint and commercial enamels from sticks or trowels onto huge canvases stretched on the floor. By this method Pollock produced intricate interlaced patterns of color, such as Full Fathom Five and Lucifer (both 1947, Museum of Modern Art). After 1950 his style changed again, as he crisscrossed raw white canvas with thin lines of brown and black pigment. Among his paintings of this last period is Ocean Grayness (1953, Guggenheim Museum, New York City). </text>
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<text>Pollock, Jackson</text>
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<text>Pollaiuolo, surname of two Italian artists of the Renaissance, who, as brothers, shared a busy workshop in Florence. Patronized by the Medici family, the firm produced articles of gold, bronze sculpture, paintings, and decorative work. Antonio del Pollaiuolo, real name Antonio di Jacopo d'Antonio Benci (circa 1431-98), was a painter, sculptor, goldsmith, and engraver. His imposing silver relief The Beheading of St. John the Baptist and sumptuous embroideries woven after his design still survive in the museum of the cathedral of Florence. Among his better-known works are the bronze tomb (1484-93) of Pope Sixtus IV and the monument (1493-97) to Innocent VIII (1432-92), both in Saint Peter's, Rome. Others include the bronze Hercules and Antaeus (circa 1475, National Museum, Florence) and his famous Battle of the Nudes (c. 1470, Uffizi, Florence), the first important Italian engraving. Piero Pollaiuolo (1443-96) was a painter. He did three of the paintings known as the Seven Virtues (1469-70, Uffizi, Florence), and probably collaborated with Antonio on three others. </text>
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<text>Pollaiuolo</text>
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<text>Pisano, Andrea, real name Andrea da Pontadera (circa 1290-c. 1349), Italian sculptor, born in Pontadera, and probably trained in nearby Pisa. Considered the founder of the Florentine school of sculpture, he is best known for his relief panels on the bronze south door (1330-36) of the Florence Baptistery; their narrative scheme and naturalist style were influenced by Giotto's fresco cycles. As assistant to Giotto, and from 1340 Giotto's successor as master of the works of the Florence Cathedral, Pisano carved stone reliefs for the lower register of the campanile. In 1347 he became master of works for Orvieto Cathedral. </text>
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<text>Pisano, Andrea</text>
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card_121884.xml
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<text>Pisano, name of two 13th- and 14th-century Italian sculptors and architects, father and son, who were the preeminent figures of the 13th-century Italian revival of the classical Roman sculptural style. Working mainly in northern Italy in the cities of Pisa, Perugia, Siena, Pistoia, and Padua, the Pisanos created carved pulpits, cathedral facades, municipal fountains, and church sculpture. Nicola Pisano(circa 1220-c. 1284). Nicola, the father, is thought to have been trained in the Italian workshops of the Holy Roman emperor Frederick II, who encouraged a Roman revival. Nicola's carved reliefs for the pulpit of the Pisa Baptistery (1260) were derived from figures on Roman sarcophagi in the Camposanto of Pisa: A nude Hercules was rendered into a personification of Christian fortitude; a Phaedra became the Virgin Mary. These carvings are outstanding for their assimilation of the solid, three-dimensional Roman style as well as for their corresponding emphasis on the individuality and dignity of the human figure. They mark a turning point in Italian sculpture analogous to that represented in painting by the work of Giotto. Giovanni Pisano(circa 1250-c. 1314). In Nicola's later work, and that of his son, Giovanni, the classical style often shows an increasing integration of Gothic motifs and stylistic elements. This uniquely Italian assimilation of French Gothic influences can be seen in Nicola and Giovanni's Siena pulpit (1268), Giovanni's sculptures and architectural design for the facade of the Siena Cathedral (circa 1285), and his later pulpit for Pistoia (1301). In these sculptures the carved figures take on the Gothic elements of violent movement, animated detail, angular and oblique arrangements, and deep-cut shadowy carving. His later pulpit for the Pisa Cathedral (1310) shows a return to classical motifs, tempered by certain Gothic elements. Giovanni's designs were some of the most powerful and expressive in Italian art at the end of the 13th century, and they were a dominant influence on Italian sculptors of the early Renaissance, among them Jacopo della Quercia, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and Donatello. </text>
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<text>Pisano</text>
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card_121697.xml
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<text>Pisanello (circa 1395-1455), Italian painter, draftsman, and medallist, who was the last and most brilliant artist of the ornate, courtly International Gothic style. Originally named Antonio Pisano, he studied under Gentile da Fabriano, whose graceful, detailed style he inherited. Pisanello produced paintings, frescoes, drawings, and portrait medallions for the courts of Milan, Rimini, Naples, Mantua, Ferrara, and Verona. His well-known small painting, Princess of the House of Este (circa 1443, Louvre, Paris), exemplifies his style; it shows a woman in profile against a tapestrylike floral background and is characterized by elegant long lines, clear colors, and exquisite drawing of details. His frescoes, such as his masterpiece Saint George and the Princess (1438, Sant'Anastasia, Verona), show to the greatest extent his precise and loving representation of the natural details of human figures, animals, flowers, and objects. His numerous drawings are also fastidiously detailed, and in some of them, particularly those of female nudes, he achieves a strength of three-dimensional modeling that establishes an important link between the Gothic and Renaissance styles. </text>
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<text>Pisanello</text>
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card_121568.xml
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<text> Piranesi, Giovanni Battista (1720-78), Italian graphic artist, famous for his engravings and etchings during his lifetime—more than 2000 prints of real and imaginary buildings, statues, and ornaments. He contributed to 18th-century neoclassicism by his enthusiastic renderings of ancient Roman monuments, which included both accurate portrayals of existing ruins and imaginary reconstructions of ancient buildings. One of Piranesi's earliest and most lastingly renowned collections is his Carceri d'Invenzione (Imaginary Prisons, 1745; 2d ed. 1760), in which he transformed Roman ruins into fantastic, immeasurable dungeons dominated by immense, gloomy arcades, staircases rising to incredible heights, and bizarre galleries leading nowhere. These engravings became an important influence on 19th-century romanticism and also played a role in the development of 20th-century surrealism.</text>
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<text>Piranesi, Giovanni Battista</text>
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card_121340.xml
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<text>Pinturicchio, real name Bernardino di Betto di Biago (1454-1513), Italian painter of decorative frescoes. He was born in Perugia. An assistant to Perugino, he worked on the frescoes in the Sistine Chapel at Rome and then painted (circa 1485) frescoes in Santa Maria in Aracoeli in Rome illustrating the life of Saint Bernardino of Siena. After executing two works in the cathedral at Orvieto, he painted (1492-94) six frescoes in the Borgia apartments (now the library) of the Vatican. His last and most important works are the ten frescoes he painted (1502-07) in the Piccolomini Library of the Cathedral of Siena depicting the life of Pope Pius II, a member of the Piccolomini family, in brilliant color and realistic detail. Among Pinturicchio's few surviving easel paintings are the Madonna in Glory (1510, Municipal Museum, Barbiano) and Christ Carrying the Cross (1513, Borromeo Collection, Milan). </text>
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<text>Pinturicchio</text>
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card_120880.xml
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<text>Pilon, Germain (circa 1530-90), French sculptor, one of the most important and influential of the 16th century. Born and trained in Paris, he produced mainly tomb sculpture and portrait busts. Much of his early work was done under the direction of the Italian-born court artist Francesco Primaticcio. Most notable of this work was Pilon's tomb of Henry II and Catherine de Medici (1563-70, Church of St. Denis, Paris), consisting of kneeling figures, recumbent effigies, and standing figures of the four Virtues; he achieved a naturalism and freedom of movement that went beyond the usual tense Mannerist style of the period. His mature work, exemplified by the St. Francis in Ecstasy of the Valois Chapel (circa 1585, Church of St.-Jean-St.-François, Paris), is characterized by an even greater freedom and relaxation in its modeling. His work represents an important step toward the emotional naturalism of the baroque style and was a strong influence on the next generation of French sculptors. </text>
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<text>Pilon, Germain</text>
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card_120765.xml
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<text>Pietro da Cortona (1596-1669), Italian painter and architect, one of the leaders of the 17th-century high baroque style in Rome. Born in Cortona on November 1, 1596, his original name was Pietro Berrettini. Cortona studied painting in Florence and in 1613 settled in Rome, where he lived for the rest of his life. Cortona's most important works were his illusionistic frescoes, a favorite baroque art form. Until his time, large ceiling paintings had been divided into compartments or sections, each illustrating a particular scene or episode. Cortona, in his vast ceiling fresco (1633-39) for the Gran Salone of the Palazzo Barberini in Rome, freed his frescoes from this restraint by mingling his scenes in one large composition unified by a background expanse of sky, thus creating a sense of movement, profusion, and limitless depth that epitomized the baroque. As an architect, Cortona designed several churches in Rome, the most important being Santa Maria della Pace (1657); its convex semicircular portico, set between concave wings, gives a typical baroque impression of a stage set. Cortona's painting influenced the course of European art for a century after his death; his architecture was influential for his contemporary, the Italian master Gianlorenzo Bernini. Cortona died in Rome on May 16, 1669. </text>
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<text>Pietro da Cortona</text>
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card_120402.xml
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<text>Piero di Cosimo, real name Piero di Lorenzo (1462-1521), Italian painter of religious works and imaginative mythological scenes. He was born in Florence, where he studied with the painter Cosimo Rosselli (1439-1507). In 1482 he accompanied Rosselli to Rome and assisted him in painting frescoes in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican. Subsequently Piero returned to Florence and gained a reputation as one of the most original painters of the Renaissance. Although Piero was influenced by the work of Leonardo, Botticelli, and other great painters of his day, he never was imitative. His panels, especially those depicting classical themes, are characterized by imaginative and bizarre representations of human figures and animals, set against skillfully executed landscape backgrounds. Among the most remarkable of his paintings are The Visitation (circa 1500, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.), Venus and Mars (former State Museums, Berlin), and Death of Procris (circa 1510, National Gallery, London). </text>
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<text>Piero di Cosimo</text>
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card_120205.xml
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<text> Piero Della Francesca (circa 1420-92), Italian painter of the first rank, whose style was one of the most individual of the early Renaissance. Piero was born in Borgo San Sepolcro, a small city in southern Tuscany, around 1420. He appears to have studied art in Florence, but his career was spent in other cities, among them Rome, Urbino, Ferrara, Rimini, and Arezzo. He was strongly influenced by Masaccio and Domenico Veneziano. His solid, rounded figures are derived from Masaccio, while from Domenico he absorbed a predilection for delicate colors and scenes bathed in cool, clear daylight. To these influences he added an innate sense of order and clarity. He wrote treatises on solid geometry and on perspective, and his works reflect these interests. He conceived of the human figure as a volume in space, and the outlines of his subjects have the grace, abstraction, and precision of geometric drawings. Almost all of Piero's works are religious in nature—primarily altarpieces and church frescoes—although his serene and noble double portrait Federigo da Montefeltro and Battista Sforza (1465, Uffizi, Florence) is one of his most famous works. The undisputed high point of his career was the series of large frescoes, Legend of the True Cross, (circa 1453-54), done for the Church of San Francesco in Arezzo, in which he presents scenes of astonishing beauty, with silent, stately figures fixed in clear, crystalline space. These frescoes are characterized by broad contrasts—both in subject matter and in treatment—that create a powerful effect of grandeur. Thus, for example, the nudes in Death of Adam are contrasted to the sumptuously attired figures in Solomon and Sheba, the bright daylight of Victory of Constantine with the gloom of Dream of Constantine (one of the first night scenes in Western art). In addition, each fresco is organized in two sections—a square paired with a longer rectangle—which he exploits to create a marked sense of rhythm. Piero's later works show the probable influence of Flemish art, which he assimilated without betraying his own monumental style. In works such as the Sinigallia Madonna (c. 1470, Galleria Nazionale delle Marche, Urbino), he adapted to his own purposes an attention to detail and a meticulous treatment of still life that were characteristic of Flemish art. Certain aspects of Piero's work were significant for the northern Italian painters Mantegna and Giovanni Bellini, as well as for the later Raphael, but his art was in general too individual and self-contained to influence strongly the mainstream of Florentine art. He died in Borgo San Sepolcro, July 5, 1492. g the annexation of Cuba, further undermined the administration in the free states. After failing to obtain renomination in 1856, Pierce withdrew from active politics. During the American Civil War he was widely denounced for his outspoken criticism of the Lincoln administration. He died at Concord on October 8, 1869. EvaluationAlthough personally gracious and politically experienced, Pierce did not measure up to the responsibilities of his high office. Whether because of his personal misfortunes or his inability to understand the moral issues inherent in the antislavery struggle, he was unable to assert himself and provide the leadership needed. This resulted in the destruction of his hopes for sectional peace. </text>
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<text>Piero Della Francesca</text>
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card_119945.xml
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<text>Picabia, Francis (1879-1953), French avant-garde painter, born in Paris. His art defies classification, as he painted in almost every major contemporary style, including impressionism, cubism, collage, Fauvism, orphism, Dadaism, surrealism, figurative painting, and abstract art. He also designed the influential costumes and sets for the Swedish Ballet production of Rel√¢che in 1924. As a writer, he contributed to several avant-garde reviews. His interest in literature and language was particularly evident in his later works. </text>
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<text>Picabia, Francis</text>
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card_119313.xml
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<text>Phyfe, Duncan (1768-1854), American furniture designer, whose neoclassical manner helped define the Federal style in the U.S. Of Scottish origin, he settled in New York City in 1790 and opened a successful furniture shop that at times employed more than 100 craftsmen. His chairs, tables, sofas, and sideboards show the influence of English neoclassical and Regency styles and of French Directoire and Empire styles. The elegant proportions, slender lines, and graceful neoclassical motifs of Phyfe's furniture were ideal complements to American houses in the chaste Federal style. His best work is in mahogany and features such carved decorations as swags, leaves, plumes, and—his most characteristic motif—the delicate lyre shape that appears in chair backs, sofa arm supports, and table bases. His later furniture (after 1820), usually in rosewood, is more massive and highly ornamented and is usually considered inferior to his early work. </text>
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<text>Phyfe, Duncan</text>
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card_119124.xml
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<text>Phidias (flourished 490-430 bc), Greek sculptor of the classical period, whose outstanding qualities are perfection of form and expression of a profound and noble character. Phidias, who was famed also as an architect and painter, was born in Attica. Knowledge of his works depends on the statements of ancient writers because none of his original work is believed to have survived. His first known commission was to execute for Athens a large bronze group of national heroes with the general Miltiades as the central figure. The Athenian statesman Pericles, head of affairs in the Athenian state, gave Phidias the commission for the statues, which were to be erected to decorate Athens, and made him general superintendent of all public works. Phidias directed the construction of the Propylaea, the monumental entrance to the Acropolis, and the Parthenon. He executed the gold and ivory statue of Athena, goddess of wisdom and protectress of Athens, which stood in the Parthenon. His colossal statue of Zeus, father of the gods, at Olympia was considered his masterpiece. The events of Phidias's closing years are much disputed. He was accused by the enemies of Pericles of embezzling the gold appropriated for the statue of Athena and died in prison or, according to another account, was banished. Another version relates that he was aquitted of the charge of embezzlement but was condemned for impiety for introducing his portrait and that of Pericles on the shield of the goddess Athena. Ancient and modern critics agree that the works of Phidias, along with the tragedies of the Greek dramatist Sophocles, were the most perfect expression of the spirit of the noblest period of Greek civilization, in which art forms were employed to reproduce the ideal beauty lying behind the realities of nature and to reveal the typical and permanent elements rather than the individual and transitory. </text>
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<text>Phidias</text>
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card_119028.xml
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<text>Pevsner, Antoine (1886-1962), Russian-French sculptor, a leader of the constructivist movement in modern sculpture. Born in Orël, he studied in Kyyiv, visited avant-garde artists in Paris, and during World War I worked in Norway with his brother, the sculptor Naum Gabo. When they returned to Russia in 1917, Pevsner taught at the Moscow School of Fine Arts. In 1920 Gabo and Pevsner issued their Realist Manifesto, an acute summary of the issues confronting 20th-century art and a declaration of their own artistic principles. In 1923 political pressures forced them to emigrate. Settling in Paris, Pevsner, until then primarily a painter, turned to sculpture. He developed a deeply influential style—at once true to constructivist principles and highly personal—with complex curves and planes, clear definitions of space, and a great sense of dynamic tension. His works include Developable Column (1942, Museum of Modern Art, New York City) and the monumental outdoor Dynamic Projection in the 30th Degree (University City, Caracas, Venezuela). </text>
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<text>Pevsner, Antoine</text>
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card_118303.xml
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<text>Peruzzi, Baldassare Tommaso (1481-1536), Italian architect and painter, born near Siena, and trained as a painter there and in Rome. In Rome he studied Roman antiquities, particularly architecture, and came under the influence of the painter Raphael and the architect Bramante. He soon achieved distinction with his frescoes in the Church of Santa Maria della Pace. He also designed a palace, now known as the Villa Farnesina (1509-11), famous for its graceful proportions. Peruzzi was appointed architect of Saint Peter's Basilica by Pope Leo X in 1520. During the sack of Rome in 1527 by the armies of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Peruzzi fled to Siena, where he was made city architect. He returned to Rome in 1532 and began his architectural masterpiece, the Palazzo Massimi alle Colonne (1535), notable for its balanced proportions, its restrained detail and ornament, and its bold convex facade. </text>
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<text>Peruzzi, Baldassare Tommaso</text>
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card_118164.xml
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<text> Perugino, real name Pietro di Cristoforo Vannucci (circa 1450-1523), Italian painter, whose style is characterized by purity, simplicity, and exceptional symmetry of composition. Raphael, the greatest painter of the Umbrian school, was a pupil of Perugino. Perugino was born in Città della Pieve, Umbria, and studied painting with the Florentine sculptor and painter Andrea del Verrochio; he may also have worked with the Italian painter Piero della Francesca. Few of Perugino's early works have survived. One example, dated 1478, is a fresco, representing Saint Sebastian, in the Church of Castel Cerqueto near Perugia. From 1479 to 1482 Perugino painted a series of frescoes in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, which included his earliest extant major work, Christ Giving the Keys to Saint Peter. From 1486 to 1499, he lived in Florence, making a number of trips to Perugia, the city from which his name is derived, and to Rome. His works of this period include the Madonna with Saints and Angels (1493), now in the Louvre, Paris; and his celebrated Pietà (1495), in the Pitti Palace, Florence. Between 1499 and 1500 at Perugia he decorated the audience hall of the bankers' guild, the Cambio, with extensive frescoes depicting allegorical and sacred subjects. At about this time Raphael became one of his pupils. One of the best of Perugino's later works is an elaborate altarpiece painted between 1512 and 1517 for the Church of Sant'Agostino, Perugia. Among his other works are The Marriage of the Virgin (circa 1503-4, Caen, France), which served as the model for Raphael's Sposalizio; Combat of Love and Chastity (1505, Louvre); and Virgin between Saint Jerome and Saint Francis (1507, National Gallery, London). The fresco, The Adoration of the Shepherds, (1523, National Gallery), is thought to be his last work. Perugino died at Fontignano in February or March 1523. </text>
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<text>Perugino</text>
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card_117817.xml
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<text>Perillo, Gregory (1931- ), American artist, best known for his paintings of American Indian subjects. Born in New York City, he studied with the American western artist William Robinson Leigh (1866-1955). Perillo's paintings, mostly in the realistic idiom of the Western genre, have been described as romantic and idealized. He has also painted African wildlife and made bronze sculptures. His works include lithographs; Peaceable Kingdom, a painting of North American and African wildlife; and a series of four paintings of American Indians for Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia. </text>
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<text>Perillo, Gregory</text>
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card_117514.xml
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<text>Pennell, Joseph (1857-1926), American etcher, lithographer, and author, born in Philadelphia, and trained at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. He became a popular illustrator for Harper's Weekly and other journals, traveling extensively on assignment in Europe. He worked in London from 1885 to 1916. Pennell settled in New York City in 1917 and founded the department of graphic arts at the Art Students League. He is best known for his simple and direct drawings, etchings, and lithographs, chiefly of architectural subjects, many of New York scenes. </text>
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<text>Pennell, Joseph</text>
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card_117297.xml
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<text>Pechstein, Max (1881-1955), German expressionist painter, born near Zwickau. Associated with both Die Brücke (“The Bridge”) group in Dresden and the Neue Sezession in Berlin, he painted landscapes, still lifes, portraits, and beach scenes. Inspired by primitive art, he used bright undiluted colors and vigorous brushstrokes. His paintings tended to be more eclectic, more naturalistic, and less innovative than the work of other expressionists. </text>
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<text>Pechstein, Max</text>
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card_117044.xml
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<text>Peale, Charles Willson (1741-1827), American painter, who was the most prominent portraitist of the Federal period. He studied in London with the American-born historical painter Benjamin West in 1767 and settled permanently in Philadelphia in 1776. Peale painted notable portraits of many military leaders, including 14 of George Washington. He was also an enthusiastic naturalist and established (1786) a museum of specimens in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. In 1805 he helped found Philadelphia's Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. One of Peale's best-known works is his life-size trompe l'oeil (“fool the eye”) portrait of two of his sons, The Staircase Group (1795, Philadelphia Museum of Art), an affectionate work showing them mounting a spiral staircase. Several of his 17 children also became painters, notably the still-life artist Raphaelle Peale (1774-1825) and the portraitist Rembrandt Peale (1778-1860). </text>
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<text>Peale, Charles Willson</text>
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card_116803.xml
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<text>Parrish, Maxfield (1870-1966), American painter and illustrator, born in Philadelphia. Parrish was known as an illustrator for such works as Washington Irving's Knickerbocker's History of New York, as a magazine cover and poster artist, and as a muralist; best known are his witty Old King Cole murals in the St. Regis Hotel in New York City. His romantic landscapes are marked by vivid color and flat, decorative treatment. </text>
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<text>Parrish, Maxfield</text>
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card_116543.xml
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<text>Parmigianino, real name Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola or Mazzuoli (1503-40), Italian painter of the Mannerist school. He was born in Parma and studied there with Correggio. One of the chief disciples of Correggio's sensuous style, he blended it with the classical style of the Roman painter Raphael. About 1523 Parmigianino went to Rome, from which he fled to Bologna in 1527, after the sack of Rome by the armies of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. In Bologna he painted some of his finest works, including the Madonna and Child with St. Margaret and Other Saints (Academy of Bologna). He returned to Parma in 1531 and began the frescoes of the Church of Santa Maria della Steccata, left unfinished at his death in 1540. The Madonna with the Long Neck (1534-40; Uffizi, Florence) and Cupid Sharpening His Bow (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) are among his principal works. Also a distinguished portrait painter, and one of the first Italian etchers, he painted studies of the Italian navigators Christopher Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci and a self-portrait (1524, Kunsthistorisches Museum). </text>
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<text>Parmigianino</text>
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card_116234.xml
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<text>Palmer, Samuel (1805-80), English painter, watercolorist, and etcher. He was strongly influenced by the visionary artist and poet William Blake, and his own mystical, ecstatic works, such as the painting Magic Apple Tree (1830, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, England), abound in images of full moons, lushly fertile fields, rich gardens, and sleeping shepherds. Palmer's late works, both etchings and watercolors, are highly skilled but more conventional in style. </text>
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<text>Palmer, Samuel</text>
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card_116193.xml
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<text>Palma Vecchio, full name Jacopo Negretti d'Antonio Palma (circa 1480-1528), Italian painter of the Venetian school, born in Serina, near Bergamo. His work was allied in spirit and treatment to that of the Venetian masters Giorgione and Titian. His forms were large and ample, his colors rich and warm. Sacre conversazioni (Holy Conversations) is a subject he painted many times; in it, groupings of figures converse in a quiet landscape suffused in a golden glow. Noted examples are his Saint Barbara (circa 1522, Santa Maria Formosa, Venice) and Madonna with Saints (c. 1512, Alte Pinakothek, Munich). Three Sisters (before 1525, Gemaldegalerie, Dresden), also called Three Graces, is one of his best-known works. </text>
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<text>Palma Vecchio</text>
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card_115883.xml
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<text>Pacher, Michael (circa 1435-98), Austrian painter and sculptor. His elaborate altarpieces combine painted panels with carved wooden figures. His best known work, the Saint Wolfgang Altarpiece (1481, Sankt Wolfgang, Austria), with scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary and the legend of St. Wolfgang, is one of the first Austrian works of art to show Italian Renaissance influence, particularly that of the painter Andrea Mantegna. </text>
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<text>Pacher, Michael</text>
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card_115649.xml
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<text>Ostade, Adriaen van (1610-85), Dutch painter and engraver, born in Haarlem. He studied with the Dutch artist Frans Hals and later came under the influence of the great master Rembrandt; Ostade was the teacher of the genre painter Jan Steen. Ostade painted many small genre pictures, lively and vigorous and full of subtle effects of light and shade. His subject matter included tavern scenes, peasants drinking and smoking, itinerant musicians, village festivities, and quaint village characters. He also executed 50 etchings depicting peasant life. </text>
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<text>Ostade, Adriaen van</text>
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card_115236.xml
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<text>Orcagna, Andrea, real name Andrea di Cione (circa 1308-c. 1368), Italian painter, sculptor, mosaicist, and architect, born in Florence, the son of a goldsmith. He entered the painters' guild in 1343 and the stone masons' guild in 1352. Influenced both by the traditional, hieratic Byzantine style and by the new naturalism of Giotto and Andrea Pisano, Orcagna was regarded as the leading master of his day. He often collaborated with his three brothers, Nardo, Matteo, and Jacopo. The only painting solely by Orcagna is an elaborate altarpiece, The Redeemer (1357), for the Strozzi Chapel in Santa Maria Novella, Florence. In this work the expressive monumental figures stand out boldly from the gold Byzantine background. Remnants of frescoes by Orcagna adorn Santa Croce, Florence. In 1355 Orcagna began work on the famous sculptured tabernacle for Or San Michele, Florence; it is an elaborate structure decorated in late Gothic style but with strong modeling and an emotional expressiveness that foreshadowed the Renaissance. From 1359 to 1362 he directed the construction of Orvieto Cathedral and made mosaics for its facade. From 1364 to 1367 he directed the building of Florence Cathedral. </text>
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<text>Orcagna, Andrea</text>
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card_114822.xml
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<text>Opper, Frederick Burr (1857-1937), American illustrator and cartoonist, born in Madison, Ohio. He was associated with the New York Journal and the weekly Puck from 1880 to 1899. Noted for his sharp, witty drawings, he illustrated books by Bill Nye (1850-96), Mark Twain, and Finley Peter Dunne, author of the Mr. Dooley series. Opper created the comic-strip characters Happy Hooligan and Alphonse and Gaston. </text>
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<text>Opper, Frederick Burr</text>
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card_114475.xml
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<text> Oldenburg, Claes Thure (1929- ), American sculptor, who was a pioneer of pop art. He was born in Stockholm, where his father was a diplomat. Between 1960 and 1965, Oldenburg conducted a number of so-called happenings, typical of which was Autobodys (1964, Los Angeles), which involved automobiles, crowds of people, and quantities of ice cubes in a participational art event. The crudely painted props used in these events formed the basis of much of his later sculpture. In 1961 he opened a store in New York City and sold plaster replicas of hamburgers, sandwiches, sundaes, and other fast-food items. Later versions of these objects were constructed on a gigantic scale from vinyl stuffed with foam rubber. He continued to use similar soft materials, especially vinyl and canvas, in later sculptural series of objects such as bathroom fixtures, fans, and typewriters. These works, called soft sculptures, transform familiar everyday objects into sagging heaps; they are intended both as innovative sensual experiences and as commentary on the social import of the objects portrayed. Oldenburg has also worked in fiberglass and metal; his huge metal Geometric Mouse exists in several versions, adorning plazas in Washington, D.C., Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Houston, Texas. </text>
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<text>Oldenburg, Claes Thure</text>
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card_114263.xml
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<text> O'Keeffe, Georgia (1887-1986), American abstract painter, famous for the purity and lucidity of her still-life compositions. O'Keeffe was born in Sun Prairie, Wisconsin, and studied at the Art Institute of Chicago and the Art Students League of New York. She taught art in Texas from 1913 to 1918. In 1916 the American photographer and art gallery director Alfred Stieglitz (whom she married in 1924) became interested in her abstract drawings and exhibited them at “291,” his gallery in New York City; her work was shown annually in Stieglitz's galleries until his death in 1946. O'Keeffe, who moved to New Mexico in 1949, is best known for her large paintings of desert flowers and scenery, in which single blossoms or objects such as a cow's skull are presented as if in close-up. Although O'Keeffe handles her subject matter representationally, the starkly linear quality, the thin, clear coloring, and the boldly patterned composition produce abstract designs. A number of her works have a surrealistic effect, the flower paintings in particular—such as Black Iris (1926, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City)—having sexual connotations. In the 1960s, inspired by a series of airplane flights, O'Keeffe introduced motifs of sky and clouds, as seen from the air, into her paintings. One of her largest works is the 7.3-m (24-ft) wide mural Sky above Clouds (1965, collection of the artist). O'Keeffe's paintings hang in museums and private collections throughout the U.S. </text>
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<text>O'Keeffe, Georgia</text>
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card_113929.xml
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<text>Nolde, Emil (1867-1956), one of the foremost German expressionist painters, whose masklike heads, contorted brushwork, and raw, strident colors were intended to give the viewer a visual and emotional shock. His original name was Emil Hansen. Nolde was influenced primarily by Vincent van Gogh, Edvard Munch, and James Ensor, whose tortured visions and color experiments he carried to new frontiers. A trip to New Guinea in 1913-14 crystallized his taste for the primitive, for brutal distortions of form, and for contrasting colors. His style changed little throughout his career, and he concentrated principally on landscapes and on interior scenes with human figures. His landscapes, such as March (1916, Kunstmuseum, Basel), were brooding and ominous, and his peopled scenes, such as The Reveler (1919, Städtische Gallerie, Hanover), present human faces as grotesque masks of crude basic emotions. In works such as the triptych Life of Maria Aegyptica (1912, Kunsthalle, Hamburg), he attempted to revive religious imagery in expressionistic treatments of New Testament scenes. He also produced an important body of expressionist watercolors and engravings. </text>
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<text>Nolde, Emil</text>
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card_113729.xml
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<text>Noland, Kenneth (1924- ), American abstract painter. Working principally in the medium of thinned acrylic paint applied directly to raw canvas, he produces paintings whose brilliantly juxtaposed colors create a sense of optical vibration. His main motifs are concentric circles, diagonal chevrons, and long parallel stripes, often including large blank areas of canvas. He is known for his unusual diamond-shaped and elongated rectangular canvases. </text>
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<text>Noland, Kenneth</text>
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card_113512.xml
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<text>Noguchi, Isamu (1904-88), American sculptor, son of the poet Yone Noguchi (1875-1947), born in Los Angeles, and educated at Columbia University. In 1927-28 he worked in the Paris studio of the Romanian sculptor Constantin Brancusi. He then traveled and studied in England, China, and Mexico. He won the national competition to decorate the Associated Press Building in Rockefeller Center, New York City, with a huge relief sculpture of stainless steel, executed in 1938. During his voluntary internment in a California nisei camp during World War II, Noguchi continued to experiment with materials and forms. He also carved the graceful marble Kouros (1944-45, Metropolitan Museum, New York City), an abstract interpretation of archaic Greek sculpture. After the war he designed stage sets and costumes for the modern dancers Martha Graham and Merce Cunningham, and for George Balanchine's New York City Ballet. Noguchi's works characteristically present polished abstract forms that blend subtle Oriental respect for materials with the most refined sophistication of Western art. After 1950 his largest projects were outdoor spaces, designed on the aesthetic principles of Japanese gardens, in which large abstract sculptures were precisely sited to achieve balanced relationships between them, their defined space or garden, and the architecture surrounding them. Outstanding examples are the Garden of Peace (1956-58, UNESCO Building, Paris), the Water Garden (1964-65, Chase Manhattan Bank Plaza, New York City), the Billy Rose Art Garden (1965, Jerusalem), and the plaza in the Japanese section of Los Angeles (1983). He also devised a fountain for the Detroit Civic Center Plaza (1975) and an environmental sculpture group at the Storm King Art Center, Mountainville, New York. Throughout his career Noguchi also designed interior furnishings. </text>
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<text>Noguchi, Isamu</text>
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card_113249.xml
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<text>Nicholson, Ben (1894-1982), English painter and sculptor, born in Denham. His father, Sir William Nicholson (1872-1949), was famous for his portraits, illustrations, and posters, executed mostly in woodcut. The younger Nicholson, who studied painting in England, France, and Italy, had his first one-man show in London in 1922. His work progressed from impressionism through cubism to a phase influenced by the neoplastic painter Piet Mondrian, in which Nicholson constructed shallow reliefs made of basic geometric forms painted white or in neutral tones, such as White Relief (1935, Tate Gallery, London) and Painted Relief (1939, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). Eventually he evolved his own style of delicately colored and purely composed abstract paintings, always based on real objects or landscapes, as for example, November 1956 (Pistoia) (1956, Art Institute of Chicago). </text>
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<text>Nicholson, Ben</text>
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card_112980.xml
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<text>Nicholas of Verdun (circa 1130-c. 1205), French artisan, the last of the great medieval goldsmiths. Active in Tournai, Cologne, and Vienna, he created shrines, chalices, candlesticks, figurines, and other gold and silver objects decorated with jewels and precious stones, enamels, and metalwork. His style was particularly notable for its sensitive, lively, and unusually realistic portrayal of human figures. Two signed masterpieces are extant. The pulpit front (1181) at Klosterneuburg, near Vienna, contains 51 enamel plaques illustrating scenes from the Old and New Testaments. The Shrine of Saint Mary (1205, Tournai Cathedral) is a gold-and-silver reliquary encrusted with 1500 precious stones and 4 rock-crystal finials. </text>
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<text>Nicholas of Verdun</text>
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card_112799.xml
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<text>Newman, Barnett (1905-70), American abstract expressionist painter and a prominent exponent of its color-field wing. He is best known for his simplified canvases in which a large block of color, or color-field, is broken by one or more vertical lines. In his early works of the 1940s, Newman attempted to reject contemporary American and European influences; his arrangements of loose vertical and horizontal lines and circular forms were intended as representations of surfaces and voids. In 1948, with Onement I (Newman Collection, New York City), he restricted himself to a solid-color canvas broken by a single contrasting vertical band, a format he was to follow for the rest of his life. By treating the band of color not as a sharply defined stripe but as a rough-edged strip, Newman attempted to create a sense of tension on the canvas, as though the main color-field was ripped or torn apart by the ascending vertical. His work strongly influenced other abstract expressionist painters. </text>
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<text>Newman, Barnett</text>
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card_112565.xml
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<text>Nevelson, Louise (1900-88), Russian-American sculptor, best known for her abstract vertical wood sculptures. Born September 23, 1900, in Kyyiv, Ukraine, Nevelson studied at the Art Students League in New York City from 1928 to 1930 and with the German painter Hans Hofmann in Munich in 1931. Her diverse works of the 1930s and '40s show influences ranging from the dynamic contortions of the futurist school to the cool, simplified forms of the Romanian artist Constantin Brancusi's sculptures. Trips to Mexico and South America inspired a series of terra-cotta works. She began working in wood in the early 1950s, achieving her first major success with Black Majesty (1955, Whitney Museum, New York City), a horizontal arrangement of geometrical wooden forms. In the late '50s Nevelson began producing her well-known “sculptural walls”—large freestanding arrangements of shallow vertical boxes filled with pieces of wood and miscellaneous objects such as driftwood, wheels, knobs, and chair slats. These works, with such evocative titles as Sky Cathedral (1958, Museum of Modern Art, New York City) and Total Obscurity (1962, Pace Gallery, New York City), were usually painted a single color, notably black, but sometimes white or gold. She later experimented with other materials, such as metal, Plexiglas, plastic, Lucite, and enamel. For New York City's Saint Peter's Lutheran Church Nevelson created the all-white Chapel of the Good Shepherd (1977-78). </text>
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<text>Nevelson, Louise</text>
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card_172729.xml
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<text>Neri, Saint Philip (1515-95), Italian priest and mystic, called the Apostle of Rome, who founded the Congregation of the Oratory, a community of secular priests and clerics. Originally named Filippo Romolo de Neri, he was born on July 21, 1515. Philip left his home in Florence and went to Rome in 1533, where he tutored and studied theology and philosophy, and also performed many charitable acts. In 1548 Philip and his confessor founded the Confraternity of the Most Holy Trinity, a society of laymen devoted to aiding pilgrims, convalescents, and the poor. He was ordained in 1551 and soon moved to the ecclesiastical community at San Girolamo in Rome. His informal meetings and services with vernacular hymns and prayers became so popular that a special room—an oratory—was built over the church nave. The oratory became the center of Philip’s activities, which included programs of sacred music, hence the term oratorio. From 1564 to 1575, Philip also served as rector of the Church of San Giovanni, where he established another oratory. From this grew the Congregation of the Oratory, which was approved by Pope Paul V in 1612. Pope Gregory XV (1554-1623) canonized Philip in 1622. His feast day is May 26.</text>
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<text>Neri, Saint Philip</text>
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card_172425.xml
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<text>Neel, Alice (1900-84), American portrait painter noted for her psychologically penetrating work, which has its roots in expressionism (q.v.). Born in Merion Square, Pennsylvania, and educated at Moore College of Art in Philadelphia, Neel worked mostly in New York City, where Spanish Harlem provided many subjects for her art.</text>
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card_112251.xml
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<text>Nast, Thomas (1840-1902), American cartoonist and caricaturist, born in Landau, Germany, and educated at the National Academy of Design, New York City. In 1855 he became an illustrator for Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, and three years later for Harper's Weekly, where he subsequently became staff cartoonist. His drawings during the American Civil War and Reconstruction periods won him fame, but his best-known works are the powerful cartoons successfully attacking the corrupt Tammany Ring, or Tweed Ring, of New York City during the years 1869 to 1872. These cartoons introduced the now famous political symbols of the tiger for Tammany Hall, the donkey for the Democratic party, and the elephant for the Republican party. In 1887 Nast left Harper's Weekly and in 1894 became a staff member of the Pall Mall Gazette, London. </text>
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<text>Nast, Thomas</text>
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card_112090.xml
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<text>Nadelman, Elie (1882-1946), American sculptor, born in Warsaw. He received his early training in Poland and Germany. From 1904 to 1914, the year he immigrated to the United States, he worked in Paris, influenced by the work of the French sculptor Auguste Rodin. Other formative influences were classical Greek sculpture and folk-art dolls of the 18th and 19th centuries. Nadelman's first one-man show (Paris, 1909) was a great success, and he was represented in the Armory Show (1913) in New York City, the first major exhibition of avant-garde art in the U.S. One of his most famous works is the bronze Man in the Open Air (circa 1915, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). The figure stands in a negligent pose, wittily reminiscent of classical sculpture, wearing only a bowler hat and a bowtie. Reflecting Nadelman's great interest in the problem of representing volume and geometric form, the body is reduced to an almost abstract curvilinear pattern. Later in his career, Nadelman turned to portrait sculpture and to making small, decorative plaster figures. </text>
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<text>Nadelman, Elie</text>
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card_111711.xml
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<text>Myron (circa 490-430 bc), Greek sculptor, born in Eleutherae. He worked primarily in bronze. Myron excelled in modeling athletes, animals, and figures in motion, but he was criticized for his inability to render emotions. His most celebrated works were the Discobolus (Discus Thrower), Athena and Marsyas, Ladas the Runner, and A Cow in the Marketplace of Athens. Copies of the first two have survived. </text>
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<text>Myron</text>
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card_111400.xml
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<text> Muybridge, Eadweard (1830-1904), English-American photographer and motion picture pioneer, known for his photographs of animals and people in motion. He was born Edward James Muggeridge in Kingston-on-Thames, where he was educated. After immigrating to the United States, he became a photographer for the Coast and Geodetic Survey. In 1877 he demonstrated through photographs that when a horse runs, there is a moment when all of the animal's feet are off the ground, and that the feet are tucked beneath the animal at that moment. In 1881 he invented the zoopraxiscope, a device by which he reproduced on a screen horse races, the flight of birds, and athletic contests. He wrote The Horse in Motion (1878) and Animal Locomotion (11 vol., including 100,000 photographic plates, 1887). Portions of the latter work were published under the titles Animals in Motion and The Human Figure in Motion (1901). </text>
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<text>Muybridge, Eadweard</text>
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card_111181.xml
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<text> Munch, Edvard (1863-1944), Norwegian artist, whose brooding, anguished paintings and graphic works, based on personal grief and obsessions, were instrumental in the development of expressionism. Born in Løten, Norway, on December 12, 1863, Munch began painting at the age of 17 in Christiania (now Oslo). A state grant, awarded in 1885, enabled him to study briefly in Paris. For 20 years thereafter Munch worked chiefly in Paris and Berlin. At first influenced by impressionism and postimpressionism, he then turned to a highly personal style and content, increasingly concerned with images of illness and death. In 1892, in Berlin, an exhibition of his paintings so shocked the authorities that the show was closed. Undeterred, Munch and his sympathizers worked throughout the 1890s toward the development of German expressionist art. Perhaps the best known of all Munch's work is The Scream (1893, Nasjonalgalleriet, Oslo). This, and the harrowing The Sick Child (1881-86, Nasjonalgalleriet), reflect Munch's childhood trauma, occasioned by the death of his mother and sister from tuberculosis. Melancholy suffuses paintings such as The Bridge —in limp figures with featureless or hidden faces, over which loom the threatening shapes of heavy trees and brooding houses. Reflections of sexual anxieties are seen in his portrayals of women, alternately represented as frail, innocent sufferers or as lurid, life-devouring vampires. In 1908 Munch's anxiety became acute and he was hospitalized. He returned to Norway in 1909 and died in Oslo on January 23, 1944. The relative tranquillity of the rest of his life is reflected in his murals for the University of Oslo (1910-16), and in his vigorous, brightly colored landscapes. Although his later paintings are not as tortured as his earlier work, a return to introspection marks his late self-portraits, notably Between Clock and Bed (1940, Munch Museet, Oslo). Munch's considerable body of etchings, lithographs, and woodcuts is now considered a significant force in modern graphic art; the work is simple, direct, and vigorous in style, and powerful in subject matter. Few of Munch's paintings are found outside Norway. His own collection is housed in the Munch Museet. </text>
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<text>Munch, Edvard</text>
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card_110591.xml
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<text>Mucha, Alphonse (1860-1939), Czech-French poster designer and painter. One of the leading artists of the Art Nouveau period, he created poster designs characterized by sinuous “whiplash” lines, flowers on thin, twining stems, women with long, flowing hair, and elegantly attenuated lettering. As regular poster designer for the French actor Sarah Bernhardt, Mucha created theater bills for her plays in the 1890s, as well as producing advertisements for commercial products, such as his famous poster for Job cigarettes, and exhibitions. He also designed window displays and exotic interiors. After 1913 Mucha turned to painting, devoting himself chiefly to large historical canvases. </text>
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<text>Mucha, Alphonse</text>
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card_110226.xml
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<text>Mu-Ch'i Fa-Ch'ang (flourished mid-13th century), Chinese painter, who was the greatest artist of the Sung dynasty “flower-and-bird” school. In paintings of animals, birds, flowers, and fruit, he created masterpieces of subtle ink technique. His style included both the strong, explosive brushstrokes of the “ink-splash” method and the informal, loose strokes of the “worn-out brush” manner. His masterpiece is a triptych in the Daitoku-ji (temple) in Kyoto, Japan, illustrating a white-robed Kuan-yin goddess flanked, on one side, by a scene of a crane striding before a misty bamboo grove, and on the other by a scene of a monkey and its baby on the branch of a tree. The spontaneous, quick brushstrokes of the animal panels contrast with the calm, smooth lines of the Kuanyin, creating a dynamic tension that heightens the effect of the triptych. Six Persimmons (Daitoku-ji, Kyoto), his most famous work, a simple rendering of six pieces of fruit, demonstrates drawing skill and brush control of the highest order. More appreciated in Japan than in China, he had a great influence on Japanese painting from the 14th century onward. </text>
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<text>Mu-Ch'i Fa-Ch'ang</text>
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<text> Mount, William Sidney (1807-68), American painter, born in Setauket, New York. He studied at the National Academy of Design, New York City, and was made a full academician in 1832. He painted portraits, including one of Daniel Webster, but is best known for his many skillful genre pictures and landscapes. Examples of his work are Eel Spearing at Setauket (1845, New York State Historical Association, Cooperstown) and Bargaining for a Horse (1835, New-York Historical Society, New York City). </text>
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<text>Mount, William Sidney</text>
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<text>Motherwell, Robert Burns (1915-91), American painter, born in Aberdeen, Washington, one of the founders of abstract expressionism and one of its most prolific and articulate exponents. He abandoned his literary and psychological studies for painting in 1941, working entirely in abstraction. His first solo exhibition was in 1944 at the Art of This Century Gallery in New York City. Since then Motherwell has exhibited widely in the U.S. and Europe. He represented the U.S. at the Venice Biennale in Italy in 1950 and at the S√£o Paulo Bienal in Brazil in 1961. His best-known works are The Crossing (1948, Rockefeller Collections, New York City) and his large, powerful, nonrepresentational series of paintings in black and white, entitled Elegy to the Spanish Republic, consisting of more than 100 canvases inspired by the Spanish civil war, and painted between 1949 and 1976. The use of large areas of color characterize Motherwell's later work, often called the Window-and-Wall series. </text>
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<text>Motherwell, Robert Burns</text>
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<text>Moses, Grandma, real name Anna Mary Robertson (1860-1961), American self-taught artist, born in Washington County, New York, and for most of her life a farmer's wife. Without formal art training and largely self-educated, she began to paint rural scenes for her own pleasure while in her late 70s. In 1939 three of her landscapes were displayed in a private showing to members of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. In 1940 the Gallerie Saint Étienne in New York City presented her first solo show; this launched her career as an artist. Her work is characterized by harmonious arrangement of figures and simple, decorative treatment, as in Thanksgiving Turkey (1943, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). </text>
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<text>Moses, Grandma</text>
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<text>Morse, Samuel Finley Breese (1791-1872), American artist and inventor, known for his invention of the electric telegraph (q.v.) and the Morse code.Morse was born in Charlestown, Mass. (now part of Boston), on April 27, 1791, and educated at Yale College (now Yale University). He studied painting in London and became a successful portrait painter and sculptor. In 1825 he helped found the National Academy of Design in New York City, and the following year he became the first president of the institution. He continued his painting and became a professor of painting and sculpture at New York University in 1832. About that time he became interested in chemical and electrical experiments and developed apparatus for an electromagnetic telegraph that he completed in 1836. The following year he filed a caveat, or legal notice, at the patent office in Washington, D.C., and tried without success to obtain European patents for his apparatus. He also invented a code, now known as the Morse code, for use with his telegraph instrument.In 1843 the U.S. Congress appropriated $30,000 for Morse to construct an experimental telegraph line between Washington, D.C., and Baltimore, Md. The line was successfully installed, and on May 24, 1844, Morse sent the first message: “What hath God wrought!” Morse was subsequently involved in much litigation over his claim to the invention of the telegraph, and the courts decided in his favor. He received many honors. Later he experimented with submarine cable telegraphy. Morse died in New York City on April 2, 1872.</text>
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<text>Morse, Samuel Finley Breese</text>
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<text> Morris, William (1834-96), English poet, artist, and socialist reformer, who urged a return to medieval traditions of design, craftsmanship, and community. Morris was born in Walthamstow, Essex, on March 24, 1834. He was educated at the University of Oxford and briefly apprenticed to an architect. He was one of the founders of the Oxford and Cambridge Magazine in 1857. The magazine endured for only one year, but through it Morris became friendly with the English poet and painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti. In 1858 his Defence of Guenevere and Other Poems was published, and although it attracted almost no attention at the time, it has since become regarded as a minor classic of Victorian poetry. Except for these literary endeavors, Morris devoted most of his time to architecture and painting. In 1861 he formed a decorating firm in partnership with Rossetti, the painter Sir Edward Burne-Jones and other Pre-Raphaelite painters. The firm designed and manufactured decorations such as carvings, metalwork, stained glass, and carpeting. These products were noted for their fine workmanship and natural beauty, and directly inspired the Arts and Crafts movement, which sought to reinvest everyday objects with these qualities. The influence of this movement extended throughout Europe and the United States for generations, and fathered the Art Nouveau style. In his numerous and varied writings, Morris excelled in verse translations from classic and medieval sources. Among these were The Earthly Paradise (1868-70), much in the manner of the great Middle English poet Geoffrey Chaucer; The Aeneid of Virgil (1875); and The Odyssey (1887), in the metrical style of the English dramatist and classical translator George Chapman. From materials gathered during two trips to Iceland, Morris wrote Three Northern Love Songs (1875) and the epic Sigurd the Volsung (1875). Morris became increasingly active in politics but without losing interest in art and letters. In 1884 he helped to establish the Socialist League, editing and contributing to its organ the Commonweal. He described a fictitious socialist commonwealth in England in A Dream of John Ball (1888) and News from Nowhere (1891). He established the Kelmscott Press in 1890, and, using his own designs for the type and ornamental letters, he issued editions of the classics and of his own works, notably The Kelmscott Chaucer (1896). Morris died in London on October 3, 1896. The work of Morris, both in poetry and in the applied arts, is characterized by an emphasis on decorative elements, especially on those that he thought to be characteristic of the art of the Middle Ages. His designs for books and wallpaper recall the precision and elegance of illuminated manuscripts, and his poems and epics treat medieval themes with a rich imagery and a simplicity of diction derived from the ancient epics and sagas. In his political writings, he attempted to correct the dehumanizing effects of the Industrial Revolution by proposing a form of society in which people could enjoy craftsmanship and simplicity of expression. </text>
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<text>Morris, William</text>
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<text>Moronobu (circa 1618-94), Japanese painter and printmaker, who founded the brilliant and far-reaching Ukiyo-e school. By adapting traditional painting techniques to the medium of the woodblock print and by publishing single-print sheets rather than books, he revolutionized the art of the Japanese print. Moronobu was the first artist to deal with ordinary people, and his scenes of life in the pleasure districts of Edo (Tokyo) set the style for all later Ukiyo-e (“floating world”) artists. </text>
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<text>Moronobu</text>
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<text>Morisot, Berthe (1841-95), French impressionist painter. Influenced by the artists Camille Corot and Edouard Manet, she gave up her early classical training to pursue an individualistic impressionistic style that became distinctive for its delicacy and subtlety. Her technique, based on large touches of paint applied freely in every direction, give her works a transparent, iridescent quality. She worked both in oil and in watercolor, producing mainly landscapes and scenes of women and children, as in Madame Pontillon Seated on the Grass (1873, Cleveland Museum of Art). </text>
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<text>Morisot, Berthe</text>
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<text> Moore, Henry (1898-1986), British sculptor known for his large, semiabstract sculptures of the human figure. He is considered the most prominent British sculptor of the 20th century, and his work had a strong influence on contemporary figural sculpture. Moore was born in Castleford, Yorkshire, on July 30, 1898. From 1919 to 1925 he studied at the Leeds School of Art and the Royal College of Art in London. His early works, executed in the 1920s, show the influences of pre-Columbian art of the Americas, the massive figures of the Italian Renaissance artists Masaccio and Michelangelo, and the streamlined shapes of the Romanian-born French sculptor Constantin Brancusi. In the 1930s, the work of Pablo Picasso and of contemporary abstract artists were strong influences; many of Moore's works of that period are highly abstract, consisting of simplified, rounded pieces carved from wood, with numerous indentations and holes often spanned with veils of thin metal wires. The most important and lasting influence on Moore's work, however, was the world of nature. “The human figure,” he later wrote, “is what interests me most deeply, but I have found principles of form and rhythm from the study of natural objects, such as pebbles, rocks, bones, trees, plants.” In his mature works, beginning with Reclining Figure (1936, City Art Gallery, Wakefield, England), Moore employed swelling shapes, undulating extensions, and rounded indentations that mirror natural forms. His favored themes include mother-and-child and family groups, fallen warriors, and, most characteristically, the reclining human figure, which he continued to depict throughout his career, working in wood, stone, and—after 1950—in bronze, and later in marble. These works range from the realistic—such as Draped Reclining Figure (1953, Time-Life Building, London), a massive sculpture of a woman reclining on her elbows—to the abstract—such as Internal and External Forms (1954, Albright-Knox Gallery, Buffalo, New York), a large, rounded bronze sculpture pierced by a hollow interior containing a second abstract metal form. Unlike Moore's usually preparatory sketches for his sculpture, a series of drawings of Londoners huddled in tube stations during World War II air raids stand on their own as works of art. These so-called shelter drawings (1940 ff.) poignantly express the impact of war on defenseless civilians. One of the largest collections of his sculpture, drawings, and prints is owned by the Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto. Among his major public commissions are outdoor sculptures for the UNESCO headquarters in Paris (1958); Lincoln Center of the Performing Arts, New York City (1965); the City Hall of Toronto, Ontario (1966); and the East Building of the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. (1978). Moore died in Much Hadham, England, August 31, 1986. </text>
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<text>Moore, Henry</text>
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<text> Mondrian, Piet (1872-1944), Dutch painter, who carried abstraction to its furthest limits. Through radical simplification of composition and color, he sought to expose the basic principles that underlie all appearances. Born in Amersfoort, the Netherlands, on March 7, 1872, and originally named Pieter Cornelis Mondriaan, Mondrian embarked on an artistic career over his family's objections, studying at the Amsterdam Academy of Fine Arts. His early works, through 1907, were calm landscapes painted in delicate grays, mauves, and dark greens. In 1908, under the influence of the Dutch painter Jan Toorop (1858-1928), he began to experiment with brighter colors; this represented the beginning of his attempts to transcend nature. Moving to Paris in 1911, Mondrian adopted a cubist-influenced style, producing analytical series such as Trees (1912-13) and Scaffoldings (1912-14). He moved progressively from seminaturalism through increased abstraction, arriving finally at a style in which he limited himself to small vertical and horizontal brushstrokes. In 1917 Mondrian and the Dutch painter Theo van Doesburg founded De Stijl magazine, in which Mondrian developed his theories of a new art form he called neoplasticism. He maintained that art should not concern itself with reproducing images of real objects, but should express only the universal absolutes that underlie reality. He rejected all sensuous qualities of texture, surface, and color, reducing his palette to flat primary colors. His belief that a canvas—a plane surface—should contain only planar elements led to his abolition of all curved lines in favor of straight lines and right angles. His masterly application of these theories led to such works as Composition with Red, Yellow, and Blue (1927, Cleveland Museum of Art), in which the painting, composed solely of a few black lines and well-balanced blocks of color, creates a monumental effect out of all proportion to its carefully limited means. When Mondrian moved to New York City in 1940, his style became freer and more rhythmic, and he abandoned severe black lines in favor of lively chain-link patterns of bright colors, particularly notable in his last complete masterwork, Broadway Boogie-Woogie (1943, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). Mondrian was one of the most influential 20th-century artists. His theories of abstraction and simplification not only altered the course of painting but also exerted a profound influence on architecture, industrial design, and the graphic arts. Mondrian died in New York on February 1, 1944. </text>
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<text>Mondrian, Piet</text>
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<text>Moholy-Nagy, László (1895-1946), Hungarian-American painter, sculptor, designer, and photographer, born in Bacsbarsod. Originally a law student, he studied art in Berlin after World War I, where he became a strong adherent of the abstract school known as constructivism. From 1923 to 1928 he taught at the Bauhaus in Weimar, Germany, and became a leader in the development of abstract art in many media. He explored the relationship of light and motion in his rotating Light-Space Requisite (circa 1930) and a series of Space Modulators (after 1953), which were early examples of kinetic sculpture. Moholy-Nagy moved to the U.S. in 1937 and founded the New Bauhaus in Chicago—later renamed the Institute of Design of the Illinois Institute of Technology—which he conducted until his death. Instruction in the school was based on his concepts of architectonic composition and the use of new materials; these concepts are exemplified in his Double Loop (1946, Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen, Munich), a free-form sculpture of bent Plexiglas. He also experimented and worked in painting, typography, photography, and cinema. He set forth his artistic tenets in Vision in Motion (1947). </text>
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<text>Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo</text>
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<text>Modigliani, Amedeo (1884-1920), Italian painter and sculptor, who was concerned with graceful, simplified, and sympathetic portrayal of the human figure. Modigliani was born in Leghorn on July 12, 1884, and raised in a Jewish ghetto, where he suffered serious illnesses as a boy. He studied art in Florence and in 1906 moved to Paris, where he became acquainted with Pablo Picasso, Jean Cocteau, and other avant-garde figures living there. In Paris, Modigliani led a reckless, dissipated life that gradually took its toll on his health. His artistic gifts, however, were never doubted by fellow artists. He was influenced by Fauvism and later by the work of his friend, the Romanian sculptor Constantin Brancusi. He first produced sculpture inspired by primitive African carvings, but eventually Modigliani concentrated on painting. The paintings of Modigliani, highly characteristic and delicate, are marked by sinuous lines, simple, flat forms, and elongated proportions that are almost classical in effect. Portraits and figure studies constitute most of his work, and both are characterized by the oval faces for which he is popularly known. The portraits, although of the utmost simplicity in contour, reveal considerable psychological insight and a curious sense of pathos. He achieved, in his best work, a blend of the dynamic primitivism of African sculpture and the pure grace of the 15th-century Botticelli style. He is represented by paintings such as Reclining Nude (circa 1919, Museum of Modern Art, New York City) and Nude on a Divan (Philadelphia Museum of Art). Modigliani died in Paris at the early age of 36 on January 25, 1920. </text>
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<text>Modigliani, Amedeo</text>
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<text>Modersohn-Becker, Paula (1876-1907), German expressionist painter. Her paintings are less violent than those of other expressionists. She was strongly influenced by French postimpressionism, and her works—landscapes, still lifes, mothers and children, and self-portraits—have much of the flat, calm, unshaded quality of the French artist Paul Gauguin, as in her Self-Portrait with Camellia (1907, Folkwang Museum, Essen, Germany). Modersohn-Becker's colors are deep, warm, or earthy rather than bright or harsh. Her death at the age of 31 prevented the complete maturation of her style. </text>
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<text>Modersohn-Becker, Paula</text>
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<text>Mills, Clark (1810-83), American sculptor, born in Onondaga County, New York. He worked as a laborer until about 1835, when he went to Charleston, South Carolina. There he invented a new method of casting from life. His marble bust of the American statesman John C. Calhoun, for which he was awarded a gold medal, was placed in the Charleston city hall. Although he had never seen an equestrian statue or the American president Andrew Jackson, in 1853 Mills cast in bronze an equestrian statue of Jackson with metal melted from captured British cannon. The statue is in Lafayette Square, Washington, D.C. His bronze casting of Armed Freedom by Thomas Crawford (circa 1813-57) was placed atop the Capitol in Washington in 1863. </text>
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<text>Mills, Clark</text>
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<text>Millet, Jean François (1814-75), French genre and landscape painter, born in Gruchy. He studied art in Cherbourg and later in Paris with the French painter Paul Delaroche. After 12 years in Paris and Normandy, Millet joined the Barbizon school of landscape artists. There he painted some of his best-known works of peasants working in the fields. These include The Gleaners (1857) and The Angelus (1859), both in the Louvre, and The Sower (1850) and Potato Planters (1862), both in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Although Millet did not intend his work to be regarded as social protest, the subjects he chose led inevitably to such interpretation. </text>
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<text>Millet, Jean Francois</text>
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<text>Milles, Carl (1875-1955), Swedish-American sculptor. Originally named Carl Emil Wilhelm Anderson, he was born near Uppsala. From 1897 to 1905 he studied in Paris with the renowned French sculptor Auguste Rodin. Milles returned to Sweden and taught at the Stockholm Art Academy from 1920 to 1931. Milles went to the United States in 1929 and became a naturalized citizen in 1945. He worked and taught at the Cranbrook Academy of Art in Michigan after 1931. Milles's works include monuments, polychrome statues, portrait busts in bronze, stone, and wood, and animal pieces. Vigorous and animated, they may be described as highly stylized interpretations of ancient Greek sculpture. He is known for his fountain sculpture, including the Orpheus fountain (1936) in Stockholm, the Meeting of the Waters fountain (1940) in Saint Louis, Missouri, and sculpture groups at Rockefeller Center and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. </text>
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<text>Milles, Carl</text>
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<text>Millais, Sir John Everett (1829-96), English painter, born in Southampton, and educated in art at the Royal Academy of Arts in London. At the age of 17 he exhibited at the academy his Pizarro Seizing the Inca of Peru (1846, Victoria and Albert Museum, London), then considered one of the best history paintings shown that year. In 1848 he and two other English painters, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William Holman Hunt, formed a brotherhood of artists known as the Pre-Raphaelites. Millais's first Pre-Raphaelite painting, the scene Lorenzo and Isabella (1849, Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool), recalls the manner of the early Flemish and Italian masters. Beginning in the early 1870s, he created many portraits of British personalities, famous in his time. He was a careful artist who paid strict attention to detail, unusual composition, and clarity. In much of his later work he succumbed to the Victorian taste for sentiment and anecdotal art. </text>
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<text>Millais, Sir John Everett</text>
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<text> Michelangelo (1475-1564), arguably one of the most inspired creators in the history of art and, with Leonardo da Vinci, the most potent force in the Italian High Renaissance. As a sculptor, architect, painter, and poet, he exerted a tremendous influence on his contemporaries and on subsequent Western art in general. A Florentine—although born March 6, 1475, in the small village of Caprese near Arezzo—Michelangelo continued to have a deep attachment to his city, its art, and its culture throughout his long life. He spent the greater part of his adulthood in Rome, employed by the popes; characteristically, however, he left instructions that he be buried in Florence, and his body was placed there in a fine monument in the church of Santa Croce. Early Life in FlorenceMichelangelo's father, a Florentine official named Ludovico Buonarroti (1444?-1534) with connections to the ruling Medici family, placed his 13-year-old son in the workshop of the painter Domenico Ghirlandaio. After about two years, Michelangelo studied at the sculpture school in the Medici gardens and shortly thereafter was invited into the household of Lorenzo de' Medici, the Magnificent. There he had an opportunity to converse with the younger Medici, two of whom later became popes (Leo X and Clement VII). He also became acquainted with such humanists as Marsilio Ficino and the poet Angelo Poliziano, who were frequent visitors. Michelangelo produced at least two relief sculptures by the time he was 16 years old, the Battle of the Centaurs and the Madonna of the Stairs (both 1489-92, Casa Buonarroti, Florence), which show that he had achieved a personal style at a very early age. His patron Lorenzo died in 1492; two years later Michelangelo fled Florence, when the Medici were temporarily expelled. He settled for a time in Bologna, where in 1494 and 1495 he executed several marble statuettes for the Arca (Shrine) di San Domenico in the Church of San Domenico. First Roman Sojourn Michelangelo then went to Rome, where he was able to examine many newly unearthed classical statues and ruins. He soon produced his first large-scale sculpture, the over-life-size Bacchus (1496-98, Bargello, Florence). One of the few works of pagan rather than Christian subject matter made by the master, it rivaled ancient statuary, the highest mark of admiration in Renaissance Rome. At about the same time, Michelangelo also did the marble Pietà (1498-1500), still in its original place in Saint Peter's Basilica. One of the most famous works of art, the Pietà was probably finished before Michelangelo was 25 years old, and it is the only work he ever signed. The youthful Mary is shown seated majestically, holding the dead Christ across her lap, a theme borrowed from northern European art. Instead of revealing extreme grief, Mary is restrained, and her expression is one of resignation. In this work, Michelangelo summarizes the sculptural innovations of his 15th-century predecessors such as Donatello, while ushering in the new monumentality of the High Renaissance style of the 16th century. First Return to Florence The high point of Michelangelo's early style is the gigantic (4.34 m/14.24 ft) marble David (Accademia, Florence), which he produced between 1501 and 1504, after returning to Florence. The Old Testament hero is depicted by Michelangelo as a lithe nude youth, muscular and alert, looking off into the distance as if sizing up the enemy Goliath, whom he has not yet encountered. The fiery intensity of David's facial expression is termed terribilità, a feature characteristic of many of Michelangelo's figures and of his own personality. David, Michelangelo's most famous sculpture, became the symbol of Florence and originally was placed in the Piazza della Signoria in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, the Florentine town hall. With this statue Michelangelo proved to his contemporaries that he not only surpassed all modern artists, but also the Greeks and Romans, by infusing formal beauty with powerful expressiveness and meaning. While still occupied with the David, Michelangelo was given an opportunity to demonstrate his ability as a painter with the commission of a mural, the Battle of Cascina, destined for the Sala dei Cinquecento of the Palazzo Vecchio, opposite Leonardo's Battle of Anghiari. Neither artist carried his assignment beyond the stage of a cartoon, a full-scale preparatory drawing. Michelangelo created a series of nude and clothed figures in a wide variety of poses and positions that are a prelude to his next major project, the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. The Sistine Chapel Ceiling Michelangelo was recalled to Rome by Pope Julius II in 1505 for two commissions. The most important one was for the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Working high above the chapel floor, lying on his back on scaffolding, Michelangelo painted, between 1508 and 1512, some of the finest pictorial images of all time. On the vault of the papal chapel, he devised an intricate system of decoration that included nine scenes from the Book of Genesis, beginning with God Separating Light from Darkness and including the Creation of Adam, the Creation of Eve, the Temptation and Fall of Adam and Eve, and the Flood. These centrally located narratives are surrounded by alternating images of prophets and sibyls on marble thrones, by other Old Testament subjects, and by the ancestors of Christ. In order to prepare for this enormous work, Michelangelo drew numerous figure studies and cartoons, devising scores of figure types and poses. These awesome, mighty images, demonstrating Michelangelo's masterly understanding of human anatomy and movement, changed the course of painting in the West. The Tomb of Julius IIBefore the assignment of the Sistine ceiling in 1505, Michelangelo had been commissioned by Julius II to produce his tomb, which was planned to be the most magnificent of Christian times. It was to be located in the new Basilica of St. Peter's, then under construction. Michelangelo enthusiastically went ahead with this challenging project, which was to include more than 40 figures, spending months in the quarries to obtain the necessary Carrara marble. Due to a mounting shortage of money, however, the pope ordered him to put aside the tomb project in favor of painting the Sistine ceiling. When Michelangelo went back to work on the tomb, he redesigned it on a much more modest scale. Nevertheless, Michelangelo made some of his finest sculpture for the Julius Tomb, including the Moses (circa 1515), the central figure in the much reduced monument now located in Rome's church of San Pietro in Vincoli. The muscular patriarch sits alertly in a shallow niche, holding the tablets of the Ten Commandments, his long beard entwined in his powerful hands. He looks off into the distance as if communicating with God. Two other superb statues, the Bound Slave and the Dying Slave (both c. 1510-13), Louvre, Paris), demonstrate Michelangelo's approach to carving. He conceived of the figure as being imprisoned in the block. By removing the excess stone, the form was released. Here, as is frequently the case with his sculpture, Michelangelo left the statues unfinished (non-finito), either because he was satisfied with them as is, or because he no longer planned to use them. The Laurentian LibraryThe project for the Julius Tomb required architectural planning, but Michelangelo's activity as an architect only began in earnest in 1519, with the plan for the facade (never executed) of the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence, where he had once again taken up residence. In the 1520s he also designed the Laurentian Library and its elegant entrance hall adjoining San Lorenzo, although these structures were finished only decades later. Michelangelo took as a starting point the wall articulation of his Florentine predecessors, but he infused it with the same surging energy that characterizes his sculpture and painting. Instead of being obedient to classical Greek and Roman practices, Michelangelo used motifs—columns, pediments, and brackets—for a personal and expressive purpose. Michelangelo, a partisan of the republican faction, participated in the 1527-29 war against the Medici and supervised Florentine fortifications. The Medici TombsWhile residing in Florence for this extended period, Michelangelo also undertook—between 1519 and 1534—the commission of the Medici Tombs for the New Sacristy of San Lorenzo. His design called for two large wall tombs facing each other across the high, domed room. One was intended for Lorenzo de' Medici (1492-1519), duke of Urbino; the other for Giuliano de' Medici (1479-1516), duke of Nemours. The two complex tombs were conceived as representing opposite types: the Lorenzo, the contemplative, introspective personality; the Giuliano, the active, extroverted one. He placed magnificent nude personifications of Dawn and Dusk beneath the seated Lorenzo, Day and Night beneath Giuliano; reclining river gods (never executed) were planned for the bottom. Work on the Medici Tombs continued long after Michelangelo went back to Rome in 1534, although he never returned to his beloved native city. The Last Judgment In Rome, in 1536, Michelangelo was at work on the Last Judgment for the alter wall of the Sistine Chapel, which he finished in 1541. The largest fresco of the Renaissance, it depicts Judgment Day. Christ, with a clap of thunder, puts into motion the inevitable separation, with the saved ascending on the left side of the painting and the damned descending on the right into a Dantesque hell. As was his custom, Michelangelo portrayed all the figures nude, but prudish draperies were added by another artist (who was dubbed the “breeches-maker”) a decade later, as the cultural climate became more conservative. Michelangelo painted his own image in the flayed skin of St. Bartholomew. Although he was also given another painting commission, the decoration of the Pauline Chapel in the 1540s, his main energies were directed toward architecture during this phase of his life. The CampidoglioIn 1538-39 plans were under way for the remodeling of the buildings surrounding the Campidoglio (Capitol) on the Capitoline Hill, the civic and political heart of the city of Rome. Although Michelangelo's program was not carried out until the late 1550s and not finished until the 17th century, he designed the Campidoglio around an oval shape, with the famous antique bronze equestrian statue of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius in the center. For the Palazzo dei Conservatori he brought a new unity to the public building facade, at the same time that he preserved traditional Roman monumentality. Dome of St. Peter's BasilicaMichelangelo's crowning achievement as an architect was his work at St. Peter's Basilica, where he was made chief architect in 1546. The building was being constructed according to Donato Bramante's plan, but Michelangelo ultimately became responsible for the altar end of the building on the exterior and for the final form of its dome. Michelangelo's Achievements During his long lifetime, Michelangelo was an intimate of princes and popes, from Lorenzo de' Medici to Leo X, Clement VIII, and Pius III (1439-1503), as well as cardinals, painters, and poets. Neither easy to get along with nor easy to understand, he expressed his view of himself and the world even more directly in his poetry than in the other arts. Much of his verse deals with art and the hardships he underwent, or with Neoplatonic philosophy and personal relationships. The great Renaissance poet Ludovico Ariosto wrote succinctly of this famous artist: “Michael more than mortal, divine angel.” Indeed, Michelangelo was widely awarded the epithet“divine” because of his extraordinary accomplishments. Two generations of Italian painters and sculptors were impressed by his treatment of the human figure: Raphael, Annabale Carracci, Pontormo, Rosso Fiorentino, Sebastiano del Piombo, and Titian. His dome for St. Peter's became the symbol of authority, as well as the model, for domes all over the Western world; the majority of state capitol buildings in the U.S., as well as the Capitol in Washington, D.C., are derived from it. </text>
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<text>Michelangelo</text>
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card_105369.xml
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<text>Mi Fei, also Mi Fu (1051-1107), Chinese landscape painter of the Northern Sung dynasty, famous also as a calligrapher, critic, and theorist. A native of Hubei (Hupeh) Province, he held high positions in state and local governments. Although not a prolific artist, he pioneered a new technique in his landscapes, the “ink-splash” technique, in which thick oval dots or droplets of ink were laid horizontally on paper using the side of the brush. Combined with graded washes of ink, these dots created an effect of rich, moist atmosphere and subtly receding planes of space, as in Auspicious Pine Trees in the Spring Mountains (National Palace Museum, Taiwan). This style, in which no actual drawn lines appear, set his work completely apart from the orthodox outline drawings of contemporaneous academy painters. He was more appreciated for his spectacularly skillful calligraphy; his painting did not gain notice until at least a century after his death, when its gentle, poetic, atmospheric qualities became one of the main influences on the Southern Sung school. He was also a prolific writer, producing essays on calligraphy and ink stones as well as the Hua shih (Discussion of Painting); the critical insights of this work make it one of the most important documents in the history of Sung painting. </text>
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<text>Mi Fei</text>
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card_105186.xml
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<text>Metsu, Gabriel (1629-67), Dutch painter, born in Leiden. Probably a pupil of the Dutch painter Gerard Dou, he helped found in 1648 the guild of painters in Leiden. In 1650 he settled in Amsterdam. Metsu (Metzu) painted the charming aspects of middle-class Dutch life with consummate taste in color and tone. His works include Mother and Sick Child (1660?, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam), The Music Lovers (Mauritshuis, The Hague), and A Visit to the Nursery (1661, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). </text>
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<text>Metsu, Gabriel</text>
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<text>Mestroviç, Ivan (1883-1962), Croatian sculptor, known primarily for his religious works and public monuments. Although his expressive style was somewhat influenced by the 20th-century avant garde, particularly the Vienna Secession group, it was more directly dependent on the heroic style of ancient Greek sculpture. Mestroviç's diverse work included war memorials, public monuments, portrait busts, and religious carvings, the best known of which is Archangel Gabriel (circa 1924, Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn, New York). His many relief sculptures—some of them adaptations of ancient Assyrian or Babylonian themes—are particularly original and expressive. </text>
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<text>Mestrovic, Ivan</text>
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card_104703.xml
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<text>Memling, Hans (circa 1435-94), Flemish painter of religious works and portraits characterized by their gentle, sweet tranquillity. Memling was born in Seligenstadt, near Frankfurt am Main, Germany, and became a citizen of Bruges in 1465. Little is known of his training, although it appears he was strongly influenced by the style of the Flemish master Rogier van der Weyden, especially in his love of delicate detail and his fine precise drawing. Memling's work consists primarily of altarpieces and devotional diptychs and triptychs, and portraits. His compositions representing the Madonna in sumptuous backgrounds often include representations of saints, portraits of donors, or detailed landscapes. His style changed little throughout most of his career; typical works such as the Donne Triptych, named also The Virgin and the Child with Saints and Donors (1475, National Gallery, London), and the Marriage of St. Catherine (1479, Memling Museum, Bruges) are characterized by an overall delicacy and harmony that result from a symmetrically balanced composition, clear, even lighting, and a masterly deployment of colors ranging from rich golds, reds, and blues to subtle halftones. His figures radiate an attitude of quiet devotion rather than the intense fervor found in the works of his contemporaries. As a portraitist, Memling produced idealized representations of his subjects, such as the figure of Tommaso Portinari, part of the Portinari Triptych (circa 1470, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City). In another vein, he produced the unique Seven Joys of the Virgin (circa 1480, Alte Pinakothek, Munich), a panoramic landscape made up of an iridescent assemblage of towns and castles, hills and mountains, and ports and ships. Late in his career, under the influence of the art of the Italian Renaissance, his style became more vigorous. Such an unrestrained work as Bathsheba at the Bath (circa 1485, Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart), which portrays a female nude in a realistic bathhouse scene, has a subject and a setting unusual in 15th-century Flemish painting. Memling died in Bruges on August 11, 1494. </text>
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<text>Memling, Hans</text>
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<text>Matta Echaurren, Roberto Sebasti√°n Antonio (1911- ), Chilean-born painter, whose surrealist-inspired works illustrate a dream world of modern technological civilization. His paintings, such as Eros Precipitate (1944, Museum of Modern Art, New York City), are peopled with strange hybrid automatons and insectlike creatures. Matta, now a citizen of France, lived in New York City from 1939 to 1948 and had a decisive influence on the work of Arshile Gorky and the creation of abstract expressionism. </text>
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<text>Matta Echaurren, Roberto Sebastian Antonio</text>
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<text>Masolino Da Panicale, real name Tommaso di Cristoforo di Fino (1383?-1447?), Italian painter, born in Panicale, near Florence. He is known to have joined the Florentine painters guild in 1423 and to have spent some time working in Hungary. With his associate, the Florentine painter Masaccio, Masolino executed a series of frescoes for the Brancacci Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence. Masolino's contributions, completed between 1424 and 1427, include The Preaching of St. Peter, The Raising of Tabitha, and The Fall of Adam and Eve. Other important frescoes were done for the Collegiata, a church in Castiglione d'Olona; for the Church of San Clemente, Rome; and for the Church of Sant'Agostino, Empoli. An existing fragment of the last (1424?), with its exceedingly graceful yet forceful lines and its delicate, harmonious pastel colors, reveals Masolino's links with the older International Gothic style. His earliest known work is a Madonna and Child, painted on wood (1423, Kunsthalle, Bremen); another panel, which is devoted to the Annunciation (1423?-26), is hanging in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. </text>
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<text>Masolino Da Panicale</text>
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card_102901.xml
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<text> Masaccio (1401-27?), the first great painter of the Italian Renaissance, whose innovations in the use of scientific perspective inaugurated the modern era in painting. Masaccio, originally named Tommaso Cassai, was born in San Giovanni Valdarno, near Florence, on December 21, 1401. He joined the painters guild in Florence in 1422. His remarkably individual style owed little to other painters, except possibly the great 14th-century master Giotto. He was more strongly influenced by the architect Brunelleschi and the sculptor Donatello, both of whom were his contemporaries in Florence. From Brunelleschi he acquired a knowledge of mathematical proportion that was crucial to his revival of the principles of scientific perspective. From Donatello he imbibed a knowledge of classical art that led him away from the prevailing Gothic style. He inaugurated a new naturalistic approach to painting that was concerned less with details and ornamentation than with simplicity and unity, less with flat surfaces than with the illusion of three dimensionality. Together with Brunelleschi and Donatello, he was a founder of the Renaissance. Only four unquestionably attributable works of Masaccio survive, although various other paintings have been attributed in whole or in part to him. All of his works are religious in nature—altarpieces or church frescoes. The earliest, a panel, The Madonna with St. Anne (circa 1423, Uffizi, Florence), shows the influence of Donatello in its realistic flesh textures and solidly rounded forms. The fresco Trinity (c. 1425, Santa Maria Novella, Florence) used full perspective for the first time in Western art. His altarpiece for Santa Maria del Carmine, Pisa (1426), with its central panel of the Adoration of the Magi (now in the Staatliche Museen, Berlin), was a simple, unadorned version of a theme that was treated by other painters in a more decorative, ornamental manner. The fresco series for the Brancacci Chapel in Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence (c. 1427) illustrates another of his great innovations—the use of light to define the human body and its draperies. In these frescoes, rather than bathing his scenes in flat uniform light, he painted them as if they were illuminated from a single source of light (the actual chapel window), thus creating a play of light and shadow (chiaroscuro) that gave them a natural, realistic quality unknown in the art of his day. Of these six fresco scenes, Tribute Money and Expulsion from Eden are considered his masterpieces. Masaccio's work exerted a strong influence on the course of later Florentine art and particularly on the work of Michelangelo. He died in Rome in 1427 or 1428. </text>
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<text>Masaccio</text>
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<text> Marsh, Reginald (1898-1954), American painter, whose pictures of the raffish aspects of New York City life have a Hogarthian liveliness. His works, for all their slapdash exuberance and piled-on detail, are skillfully composed and carefully drawn. After working as a magazine illustrator in the 1920s, he went on to paint his most characteristic work—street scenes, crowds, and honky-tonks. In the 1930s, Marsh also executed a series of large murals in the rotunda of the U.S. Custom House in New York City. </text>
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<text>Marsh, Reginald</text>
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<text>Marini, Marino (1901-80), Italian sculptor and graphic artist, who excelled in figures of horses and riders. Born in Pistoia, Tuscany, Marini received traditional training as a painter at the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence. Influenced by ancient Italian, Etruscan, and Greek sculpture, he later studied sculpture in Paris. He taught (1929-40) at the Villa Reale School of Art in Monza. In 1936 Marini began to create a series of sculptures of horsemen inspired by figures from ancient Chinese tombs. In such works as Horseman (1952, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis) he blended a rude archaism of form with tragic poetic expressiveness. His preferred media were bronze, wood, and plaster. Marini also sculpted psychologically penetrating portraits, such as Igor Stravinsky (1950, San Francisco Museum of Fine Arts), and sensual figures of women. </text>
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<text>Marini, Marino</text>
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<text>Marin, John (1870-1953), American painter, who is generally regarded as the foremost American watercolorist of his time. He was born in Rutherford, New Jersey, and studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts from 1899 to 1901. In 1905 he went abroad for four years, studying in Paris and making trips to Rome, London, and Amsterdam. During this period, he painted in oils and watercolors and also etched. In 1909 he held his first show of watercolors at “291,” the New York City gallery owned by the American photographer Alfred Steiglitz. Marin made his most important contribution in the medium of watercolor by using a method of bracketing and subdividing his pictures into a series of semicubist planes and bold clashes of color. He is best known for his prolific series of Maine seascapes, such as Maine Islands (1922, Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C.). His other principal subjects are city buildings as, for example, Lower Manhattan from the River no. 1 (1921, Metropolitan Museum, New York City), and landscapes. </text>
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<text>Marin, John</text>
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<text> Marc, Franz (1880-1916), German painter, who was one of the leading members of the expressionist Blaue Reiter (“Blue Rider”) group. He was born in Munich. Marc is best known for his paintings of animals—particularly horses and deer—in which he attempted to express his mystical veneration of nature. In works such as Blue Horses (1911, Walker Art Gallery, Minneapolis, Minnesota), he used stylized lines and curves and brilliant unrealistic color to create and heighten the sense of nature idealized. After 1913, in response to cubism and futurism, he turned to abstraction, creating moods of clashing, discordant uncertainty. He was killed in action during World War I. </text>
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<text>Marc, Franz</text>
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<text>Manz√π, Giacomo (1908-91), Italian sculptor. His figurative works, with surfaces ranging from rough and expressive to smooth and simplified, have an underlying grace and proportion that show the influence of classical principles. After producing several series devoted to female figures and to ecclesiastical officials, he carved the massive reliefs for the fifth ceremonial bronze door (commissioned 1949, finished 1962, dedicated 1964) of Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome, and the portal sculptures for the Italian Government Travel Office in New York City's Rockefeller Center. </text>
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<text>Manzu, Giacomo</text>
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<text> Mantegna, Andrea (1431-1506), one of the foremost north Italian painters of the 15th century. A master of perspective and foreshortening, he made important contributions to the compositional techniques of Renaissance painting. Born (probably at Isola di Carturo, between Vicenza and Padua) in 1431, Mantegna became the apprentice and adopted son of the painter Francesco Squarcione (1394-1468) of Padua. He developed a passionate interest in classical antiquity. The influence of both ancient Roman sculpture and the contemporary sculptor Donatello are clearly evident in Mantegna's rendering of the human figure. His human forms were distinguished for their solidity, expressiveness, and anatomical correctness. Mantegna's principal works in Padua were religious. His first great success was a series of frescoes on the lives of St. James and St. Christopher in the Ovetari Chapel of the Church of the Eremitani (1456; badly damaged in World War II). In 1459 Mantegna went to Mantua to become court painter to the ruling Gonzaga family and accordingly turned from religious to secular and allegorical subjects. His masterpiece was a series of frescoes (1465-74) for the Camera degli Sposi (“bridal chamber”) of the Palazzo Ducale. In these works, he carried the art of illusionistic perspective to new limits. His figures depicting the court were not simply applied to the wall like flat portraits but appeared to be taking part in realistic scenes, as if the walls had disappeared. The illusion is carried over onto the ceiling, which appears to be open to the sky, with servants, a peacock, and cherubs leaning over a railing. This was the prototype of illusionistic ceiling painting and was to become an important element of baroque and rococo art. Mantegna's later works varied in quality. His largest undertaking, a fresco series on the Triumphs of Caesar (1489, Hampton Court Palace, England), displays a rather dry classicism, but Parnassus (1497, Louvre, Paris), an allegorical painting commissioned by Isabelle d'Este, is his freshest, most animated work. His work never ceased to be innovative. In Madonna of Victory (1495, Louvre), he introduced a new compositional arrangement, based on diagonals, which was later to be exploited by Correggio, while his Dead Christ (1506, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan) was a tour de force of foreshortening that pointed ahead to the style of 16th-century Mannerism. One of the key artistic figures of the second half of the 15th century, Mantegna was the dominant influence on north Italian painting for 50 years. It was also through him that German artists, notably Albrecht Dürer, were made aware of the artistic discoveries of the Italian Renaissance. He died in Mantua on September 13, 1506. </text>
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<text>Mantegna, Andrea</text>
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<text>Manship, Paul (1885-1966), American sculptor, born in Saint Paul, Minnesota. For the first four decades of the 20th century, he was one of the most influential sculptors in the U.S.; his style, a combination of elegant academic finesse with a sense of abstraction derived from Archaic Greek sculpture, was much imitated by less gifted sculptors. One of his most famous sculptures, Centaur and Dryad (1913, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City), skillfully combines modern and classical elements. He also executed many war memorials and animal studies, including an elaborate gate for the International Wildlife Conservation Park (commonly known as the Bronx Zoo) in New York City. His huge gilded bronze Prometheus (1934), the centerpiece of the sunken plaza in Rockefeller Center, New York City, is one of his best-known works.</text>
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<text>Manship, Paul</text>
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<text>Malevich, Kasimir (1878-1935), Russian abstract painter. His earliest work shows the influence of cubism, distinguished by great clarity of outline. In 1912 he began to develop his own style, known as suprematism (referring to supremacy of feeling over all other artistic considerations). In this completely nonobjective approach he used only geometric elements—rectangles and squares in black and white. A noteworthy example is his Suprematist Composition: White on White (circa 1918, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). </text>
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<text>Malevich, Kasimir</text>
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<text>MacDonald, James Edward Hervey (1873-1932), English-Canadian painter and poet. Inspired by the pioneering Canadian landscapist Tom Thomson, MacDonald began painting scenes of the Canadian wilds shortly before World War I. His objective was to reproduce the essential mood and feeling of a landscape, which he achieved by using bright impressionist color and stylized forms. As a prominent member of the Group of Seven in the 1920s, MacDonald continued to develop and refine his style, producing powerful scenes of forests, primeval hills, and lakes. </text>
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<text>MacDonald, James Edward Hervey</text>
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<text>Mabuse, real name Jan Gossaert (Gossart) (circa 1478-c. 1533), Flemish painter, in Maubeuge (now in France). In the employ of various nobles, Mabuse worked in many cities of the Netherlands and in Italy, where he became aware of new approaches to anatomy and perspective and of classical motifs. He combined these Italian Renaissance elements with the liveliness and precise technique of Flemish painting in such works as St. Luke Painting the Virgin (circa 1515, National Museum, Prague); Neptune and Amphitrite (1516, State Museum, Berlin); and Jean Carondelet Adoring the Virgin and Child (1517, Louvre, Paris). He also painted many versions of Adam and Eve and many portraits of men. </text>
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<text>Mabuse</text>
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<text>Ma Yüan (active c. 1190-c. 1225), Chinese landscape painter, whose paintings, along with those of Hsia Kuei, represent the culmination of the Southern Sung style; followers of the two artists were termed the Ma-Hsia school. Born into a famous family of painters, Ma became a leader of the imperial painting academy at Hangzhou (Hangchow). His work represented a new style in painting—lyrical, evocative, restrained—in contrast to the more grandiose style of earlier centuries. The most striking characteristic of Ma's monochromatic ink paintings is their asymmetrical composition: The principal forms of the picture—trees, rocks, and human figures—are grouped in a lower corner. He achieved a balanced asymmetry, in which the blank areas of his paintings focus attention on the subject and at the same time suggest a limitless expanse of space. To link the two sections of the picture, he often used the device of a tree branch painted diagonally into or across the empty space. Ma's ink technique in these works is faultless, equally distinguished for the evenness and control of the broad washes and the precision and clarity of the sharp “ax stroke” brushwork. His highly popular works were often copied, even forged, which today makes positive authentication difficult; one painting widely accepted as his is Bare Willows and Distant Mountains (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). Ma was a dominant influence on later Chinese painting and on Japanese art. </text>
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<text>Ma Yuan</text>
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<text>Lysippus (flourished 4th century bc), Greek sculptor. Lysippus modified the proportions for representations of the human figure as taught by the earlier sculptor Polyclitus. In Lysippus's new system the head was reduced in size to one-eighth the height of the complete figure, and the flat frontal pose of the body was discarded in favor of more naturalistic articulation of the torso and the limbs. Lysippus is said to have produced 1500 works of sculpture, mostly bronzes, some of large size. His preferred subjects were athletes, heroes, and gods. He was the favorite sculptor of Alexander the Great, of whom he is said to have made many celebrated portrait statues. Ancient Roman writers mention many works by Lysippus, but no certain original survives; the Apoxyomenos in the Vatican Museum is the most famous Roman copy of a Lysippus original. </text>
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<text>Lysippus</text>
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<text>Lurçat, Jean (1892-1966), French artist, a leading tapestry designer of the 20th century. After painting cubist- and surrealist-influenced pictures, he turned to tapestry during the 1930s, producing designs for the famed French weavers at Aubusson. His designs are usually brightly colored and loosely organized, containing elements such as birds, animals, stars, and trees, particularly in Song of the World (1964), a huge (more than 465 sq m/5000 sq ft) work divided into many panels that illustrate Lurçat's vision of the world.</text>
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<text>Lurcat, Jean</text>
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<text>Luks, George Benjamin (1867-1933), American painter, born in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, and educated at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and the Düsseldorf Academy of Art in Germany. During the rebellion in Cuba (1895-96), Luks served as a war correspondent and artist for the Philadelphia Bulletin. Later, for the New York World, he drew the comic strip Hogan's Alley. He turned to serious art and painted vigorously realistic scenes of New York City slums. In 1908, after one of his paintings had been rejected for exhibition by the National Academy of Design, he exhibited with seven other young artists. The group, called The Eight, rebelling against the academic painting of their day, became known as the Ashcan school. Among the best-known paintings by Luks are The Spielers (1905, Addison Gallery, Andover, Massachusetts) and The Wrestlers (1905, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). </text>
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<text>Luini, Bernardino (circa 1480-1532), Italian painter of the Lombard school. Influenced by Leonardo da Vinci, he depicted madonnas characterized by classical serenity and sweetness of expression, Such as the Madonna with Rose Hedge (Brera Palace, Milan). Among his frescoes, both religious and secular, is the Story of Pan for the Villa Pelucca (Brera Palace). </text>
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<text>Luini, Bernardino</text>
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<text>Lucas Van Leyden, real name Lucas Hugensz or Jacobsz (1494-1533), Dutch painter and engraver, who was the first Dutch exponent of genre painting and is generally regarded as one of the finest engravers in the history of art. Born in Leiden, he studied with his father, a painter, and with the Dutch painter Cornelis Engelbrechtsen (1468-1563), displaying a precocious aptitude for the art of engraving. A consummate technician, Lucas executed more than 200 engravings, etchings, and designs for woodcuts, mostly of religious and allegorical subjects. His work was marked by a fine feeling for massed figure compositions, aerial perspective, drapery details, and lifelike characterizations. His series of plates on the Passion, done as early as 1509, already displayed the full powers of the artist. In 1521, Lucas met the German painter and engraver Albrecht Dürer in Antwerp and was influenced by this famous contemporary to the use of stronger tones and more accentuated modeling of shadows. Among Lucas's paintings are the Last Judgment (1526, Leiden Museum) and Christ Presented to the People (1530, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City). </text>
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<text>Lucas Van Leyden</text>
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<text>Louis, Morris (1912-62), American abstract painter. Originally working in a late Cubist manner, he was heavily influenced after 1952 by Helen Frankenthaler's method of painting without brushes—by staining raw canvas with poured acrylic paint. His Veil series (1954 and 1958) uses thin washes of paint to create translucent curtains of color on the canvas. His Florals (1960-61) used heavier paint in more haphazard bursts. In the Unfurled series (1961), thin brilliant streams of color flow across the lower corners of otherwise empty canvases, while in the Stripe and Pillar series (1961-62), colored bands are juxtaposed vertically or horizontally. </text>
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<text>Louis, Morris</text>
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<text>Lotto, Lorenzo (circa 1480-c. 1556), north Italian painter of the High Renaissance. The quality of his many religious paintings and altarpieces is uneven; his efforts to paint in the styles of his famous contemporaries Raphael and Titian were usually unsuccessful. One success, however, is St. Nicholas of Bari in Glory (1529, Church of the Carmini, Venice). He is best known for his psychologically penetrating portraits, such as Young Man in a Striped Coat (1526, Castello Sforzesco, Milan). His bold compositions and deep, velvety colors enhance the dreamy, often melancholy mood that is frequently seen in the faces of his subjects. </text>
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<text>Lotto, Lorenzo</text>
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<text>Lorenzetti, two 14th-century Italian painters who were brothers. Pietro and Ambrogio, born in Siena, belonged to the Sienese school dominated by the stylized Byzantine tradition developed by Duccio di Buoninsegna and Simone Martini. They were the first Sienese to adopt the dramatic quality of the Tuscan sculptor Giovanni Pisano and the naturalistic approach of the Florentine painter Giotto. In their experiments with three-dimensional, spatial arrangements, the brothers, particularly Ambrogio, foreshadowed the art of the Renaissance. Pietro(circa 1280-1348) was the more traditional of the two brothers, showing harmony, refinement, and detail but also dramatic emotion. his work includes the altarpiece Madonna and Child with Saints (1320, Santa Maria Della Pieve, Arezzo), dramatic frescoes in the lower Church of San Francisco in Assisi, and the Calmer, later masterpiece the Birth of the Virgin (C. 1342, Opera del Duomo, Siena). Ambrogio(1290-1348), more realistic, inventive, and influential than Pietro, is best known for the fresco cycles Good Government and Bad Government (1338-39, Palazzo Publico, Siena), remarkable for their depiction of character and of the Sienese scene. He also painted Presentation in the Temple (1342, Uffizi, Florence) and Annunciation (1344, Pinacoteca, Siena). </text>
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<text>Lorenzetti</text>
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<text>Lofting, Hugh (1886-1947), Anglo-American writer and illustrator of books for children, born in Maidenhead, England, and educated as a civil engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Polytechnic Institute of London. Lofting settled in the U.S. in 1912, but served in the British army during World War I. His popular “Dr. Dolittle” stories, about a delightful country doctor who learned how to talk with animals, began as letters to his children during the war. The first of ten books, all illustrated, was published in 1920. They were the basis for a 1967 musical film.</text>
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<text>Lofting, Hugh</text>
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<text>Lochner, Stefan (circa 1410-51), German late Gothic painter, noted for his soft, exquisite style. Combining a Gothic devotion to long flowing lines and brilliant, gemlike color with a Flemish-influenced realism and attention to detail, he produced religious paintings saturated in delicate feeling. He worked mainly in Cologne, Germany, and his principal work is the triptych of the Altar of the City Patrons (1440s, Cologne Cathedral), which represents the city in homage to the infant Christ. The epitome of his style is Madonna of the Rose Bower (circa 1450, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne), a sweetly unworldly painting showing the Virgin and Child reposing in a blooming rose arbor and attended by Lochner's characteristic child angels. </text>
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<text>Lochner, Stefan</text>
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<text>Lismer, Arthur (1885-1969), British-Canadian painter and teacher. As a member of the nationalist Group of Seven in the 1920s, he painted landscapes of the Canadian wilds—forests, lakes, and hills—using brilliant impressionist color and stylized compositions to catch the underlying mood and significance of a scene. He is best known for his views of tall spruce and tamarack reduced to basic, simplified conical forms and surrounded by low-lying lakes. </text>
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<text>Lismer, Arthur</text>
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<text>Lipton, Seymour (1903-86), American sculptor, whose abstract metal constructions symbolize the underlying forces of nature. His works, such as Flowering in the Jungle (1954, Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York), consist of heavy, curved metal plates overlaid with brass, bronze, and nickel-silver, welded into monumental expressive arrangements. </text>
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<text>Lipton, Seymour</text>
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<text>Lippold, Richard (1915- ), American sculptor, best known for his delicate geometric wire constructions. Along with Harry Bertoia, he represents a radical school of sculpture, in which space is an integral part of open, fragmented arrangements. His constructions are positioned in space by nearly invisible guy wires. Sun (1956, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City), the culmination of this style, is a large spherical starburst arrangement, as delicate and complex as a spiderweb, composed of 3.2 km (2 mi) of gold wire and 14,000 tiny welded points. </text>
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<text>Lippold, Richard</text>
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<text> Lippi, Fra Filippo (circa 1406-69), Italian early Renaissance painter, who brought a new note of informality and decorativeness to the basic intellectualism of Florentine painting. As a child, Fra Filippo was placed by his widowed mother in the monastery of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence, where he received training as a painter and took religious vows as a monk in 1421. His early works were highly influenced by the earlier Florentine master Masaccio. His fresco Reform of the Carmelite Rule (1432, Forte di Belvedere, Florence) echoes Masaccio's style in its use of imposing three-dimensional human figures; the Annunciation (circa 1438, San Lorenzo, Florence) shows his mastery of Masaccio's newly discovered principles of perspective. After 1440, Fra Filippo gradually abandoned Masaccio's precepts in favor of a more decorative style that recalled the Gothic in its use of fluttering draperies, attenuated figures, and glowing colors. He stressed the human aspects of his scenes; his Madonnas are sweetly pious or appealingly pretty (although sometimes lacking the spirituality of Madonnas by other painters), and his depictions of the Christ child and of cherubs are often playful or mischievous. In the famous Madonna and Child (1465, Uffizi Gallery, Florence), for instance, a boy angel grins out of the painting directly at the viewer. Much of this informality undoubtedly derives from his renunciation of his vows and subsequent marriage in 1461. The painter Filippino Lippi was his son. In works such as the fresco series Scenes from the Lives of Saint Stephen and John the Baptist (1452-c. 1465, Prato Cathedral), Fra Filippo combined traditional Gothic landscape elements with the new perspective style to create mysterious, receding backgrounds for his works. Fra Filippo exerted a strong influence on later Florentine art. His style led directly to that of the Florentine painter Sandro Botticelli, and the influence of his Gothic settings can be seen in Leonardo da Vinci's Madonna of the Rocks. He died in Spoleto on October 9, 1469. </text>
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<text>Lippi, Fra Filippo</text>
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<text>Lippi, Filippino (circa 1457-1504), Italian artist, whose agitated style set the stage for 16th-century Mannerism; son of the famous Renaissance painter Fra Filippo Lippi. His early work is close to that of Sandro Botticelli, in whose Florentine workshop he studied, sharing the grace and fluency of both his master's and his father's work. Filippino's mature works, however, starting with Apparition of the Virgin to Saint Bernard (1486, Badia, Florence), are increasingly strained and tense, with darker colors, harsher lighting effects, and more jagged lines. Filippino's later work culminated in his frescoes for the Strozzi Chapel (1500-2, Santa Maria Novella, Florence). Illustrating the lives of St. John and St. Phillip, these frescoes depict an ancient world heavy with archaeological detail and overlaid with tension, while the chosen subject matter dwells upon the dramatic, bizarre, and horrifying episodes in the saints' lives. His expressively distorted art foreshadowed the later Italian Mannerist school. </text>
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<text>Lippi, Filippino</text>
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<text>Lipchitz, Jacques (1891-1973), French sculptor. Originally named Chaim Jacob Lipchitz, he was born in the village of Druskininkai, Russia (now in Lithuania). In 1909, while studying at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, he joined a group of artists, including the Spaniards Juan Gris and Pablo Picasso, who were experimenting with cubism, and soon was recognized as one of the foremost cubist sculptors. An important example of his cubist work is Reclining Nude with Guitar (1928, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). His later work departed from cubism, displaying more realism and a sensuous textural surface. His attempts to reproduce the mysterious, magical qualities of primitive sculpture also became increasingly evident in his work. One of Lipchitz's recurrent themes, especially after his arrival in the U.S. in 1941, was the triumph of light over darkness, as expressed symbolically in Prometheus Strangling the Vulture (1944, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota). His monumental Peace on Earth (1967-69, Music Center, Los Angeles) exemplifies the grandeur and serenity of his late work. </text>
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<text>Lipchitz, Jacques</text>
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<text>Liebermann, Max (1847-1935), German painter and etcher, born in Berlin and educated at the University of Berlin, the Art Academy of Weimar, and with the French painter Jean François Millet in Barbizon, France. His chosen subjects were the peasant and village life of the Netherlands and working-class life in Germany. In the 1880s he came under the influence of the French painter Édouard Manet and the impressionists. As a result, Liebermann's work became brighter in color and bolder in technique; he was considered the leader of the new art movement in Germany. In 1920 Liebermann was elected president of the Berlin Academy, but was forced to resign the position in 1933 by the Nazi government. </text>
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<text>Liebermann, Max</text>
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<text> Lichtenstein, Roy (1923- ), American pop art painter, best known for his large-scale renditions of comic-strip art. His early work was in the abstract expressionist style, but after 1957 he began to experiment with freely interpreted cartoon images from bubble-gum wrappers and with travestied images taken from paintings of the Old West by the American artist Frederick Remington. By 1961 Lichtenstein was completely dedicated to the making of art from mass-produced, merchandising images. His comic-strip paintings, such as Good Morning, Darling (1964, Leo Castelli Gallery, New York City), are blowups of the original cartoon characters, reproduced by hand, with the same technique of benday dots and bright primary colors used in printing. His later works include reproductions of popular-romance characters, stylized landscapes, and picture-postcard vulgarizations of classical temples. </text>
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<text>Lichtenstein, Roy</text>
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<text>Liang K'ai (circa 1140-c. 1210), Chinese painter of the Sung dynasty, who pioneered an expressive and simplified style of ink painting. His early works are landscapes in the poetic tradition of the Southern Sung school, but after leaving the imperial painting academy in Hangzhou (Hangchow) to become a Zen monk, he concentrated mainly on figure paintings done in a new “abbreviated brush” technique. Using a wide, soft brush, he defined his human figures—poets, literary men, Zen patriarchs—with a few deft and seemingly spontaneous strokes. These works, such as The Poet Li T'ai Po (National Museum, Tokyo), are masterpieces of simplicity, freshness, and dramatic intensity. </text>
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<text>Liang K'ai</text>
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<text>Li Kung-Lin or Li Lung-Mien (1049-1106), one of the leading Chinese painters of the Sung dynasty, and a master of ink drawing in the Northern Sung wen-jen hua, the literati school of painting. While paintings attributed to him are not well authenticated, contemporary writings detail his output and define his style. More than other artists of the period, Li Kung-lin concentrated on animal and human subjects, rather than on landscape. His ink technique depended on sharply etched, fluent lines, which he used with grace and precision to define a subject. His portraits and figure paintings, although more realistic than those of earlier periods, often violate formal likeness in favor of expressive brushwork. </text>
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<text>Li Kung-Lin</text>
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<text>Lewis, (Percy) Wyndham (1882?-1957), English painter and writer, born near Amherst, Nova Scotia, and educated at the Slade School of Art in London. As a prolific experimenter in abstract forms, he founded the short-lived movement of vorticism, the English version of cubism. Vorticist paintings attempt to relate to machines and to modern industrial themes. He subsequently painted in a more conventional style. Later Lewis became primarily interested in writing, his best-known works being the satiric novels The Apes of God (1930) and The Revenge for Love (1937). </text>
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<text>Lewis, Wyndham</text>
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<text> Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Florentine artist, one of the great masters of the High Renaissance, celebrated as a painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, and scientist. His profound love of knowledge and research was the keynote of both his artistic and scientific endeavors. His innovations in the field of painting influenced the course of Italian art for more than a century after his death, and his scientific studies—particularly in the fields of anatomy, optics, and hydraulics—anticipated many of the developments of modern science. Early Life in Florence Leonardo was born on April 15, 1452, in the small Tuscan town of Vinci, near Florence. He was the son of a wealthy Florentine notary and a peasant woman. In the mid-1460s the family settled in Florence, where Leonardo was given the best education that Florence, the intellectual and artistic center of Italy, could offer. He rapidly advanced socially and intellectually. He was handsome, persuasive in conversation, and a fine musician and improviser. About 1466 he was apprenticed as a garzone (studio boy) to Andrea del Verrocchio, the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his day. In Verrocchio's workshop Leonardo was introduced to many activities, from the painting of altarpieces and panel pictures to the creation of large sculptural projects in marble and bronze. In 1472 he was entered in the painter's guild of Florence, and in 1476 he is still mentioned as Verrocchio's assistant. In Verrocchio's Baptism of Christ (circa 1470, Uffizi, Florence), the kneeling angel at the left of the painting is by Leonardo. In 1478 Leonardo became an independent master. His first commission, to paint an altarpiece for the chapel of the Palazzo Vecchio, the Florentine town hall, was never executed. His first large painting, The Adoration of the Magi (begun 1481, Uffizi), left unfinished, was ordered in 1481 for the Monastery of San Donato a Scopeto, Florence. Other works ascribed to his youth are the so-called Benois Madonna (c. 1478, Hermitage, Saint Petersburg), the portrait Ginevra de' Benci (c. 1474, National Gallery, Washington, D.C.), and the unfinished Saint Jerome (c. 1481, Pinacoteca, Vatican). Years in Milan About 1482 Leonardo entered the service of the duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, having written the duke an astonishing letter in which he stated that he could build portable bridges; that he knew the techniques of constructing bombardments and of making cannons; that he could build ships as well as armored vehicles, catapults, and other war machines; and that he could execute sculpture in marble, bronze, and clay. He served as principal engineer in the duke's numerous military enterprises and was active also as an architect. In addition, he assisted the Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli (c. 1450-c. 1520) in the celebrated work Divina Proportione (1509). Evidence indicates that Leonardo had apprentices and pupils in Milan, for whom he probably wrote the various texts later compiled as Treatise on Painting (1651; trans. 1956). The most important of his own paintings during the early Milan period was The Virgin of the Rocks, two versions of which exist (1483-85, Louvre, Paris; 1490s to 1506-08, National Gallery, London); he worked on the compositions for a long time, as was his custom, seemingly unwilling to finish what he had begun. From 1495 to 1497 Leonardo labored on his masterpiece, the The Last Supper, a mural in the refectory of the Monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan. Unfortunately, his experimental use of oil on dry plaster (on what was the thin outer wall of a space designed for serving food) was technically unsound, and by 1500 its deterioration had begun. Since 1726 attempts have been made, unsuccessfully, to restore it; a concerted restoration and conservation program, making use of the latest technology, was begun in 1977 and is reversing some of the damage. Although much of the original surface is gone, the majesty of the composition and the penetrating characterization of the figures give a fleeting vision of its vanished splendor. During his long stay in Milan, Leonardo also produced other paintings and drawings (most of which have been lost), theater designs, architectural drawings, and models for the dome of Milan Cathedral. His largest commission was for a colossal bronze monument to Francesco Sforza, father of Ludovico, in the courtyard of Castello Sforzesco. In December 1499, however, the Sforza family was driven from Milan by French forces; Leonardo left the statue unfinished (it was destroyed by French archers, who used it as a target) and he returned to Florence in 1500. Return to Florence In 1502 Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia, duke of Romagna and son and chief general of Pope Alexander VI; in his capacity as the duke's chief architect and engineer, Leonardo supervised work on the fortresses of the papal territories in central Italy. In 1503 he was a member of a commission of artists who were to decide on the proper location for the David (1501-04, Accademia, Florence), the famous colossal marble statue by the Italian sculptor Michelangelo, and he also served as an engineer in the war against Pisa. Toward the end of the year Leonardo began to design a decoration for the great hall of the Palazzo Vecchio. The subject was the Battle of Anghiari, a Florentine victory in its war with Pisa. He made many drawings for it and completed a full-size cartoon, or sketch, in 1505, but he never finished the wall painting. The cartoon itself was destroyed in the 17th century, and the composition survives only in copies, of which the most famous is the one by the Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens (c. 1615, Louvre). During this second Florentine period, Leonardo painted several portraits, but the only one that survives is the famous Mona Lisa (1503-06, Louvre). One of the most celebrated portraits ever painted, it is also known as La Gioconda, after the presumed name of the woman's husband. Leonardo seems to have had a special affection for the picture, for he took it with him on all of his subsequent travels. Later Travels and DeathIn 1506 Leonardo went again to Milan, at the summons of its French governor, Charles d'Amboise. The following year he was named court painter to King Louis XII of France, who was then residing in Milan. For the next six years Leonardo divided his time between Milan and Florence, where he often visited his half brothers and half sisters and looked after his inheritance. In Milan he continued his engineering projects and worked on an equestrian figure for a monument to Gian Giacomo Trivulzio (c. 1440-1518), commander of the French forces in the city; although the project was not completed, drawings and studies have been preserved. From 1514 to 1516 Leonardo lived in Rome under the patronage of Pope Leo X: he was housed in the Palazzo Belvedere in the Vatican and seems to have been occupied principally with scientific experimentation. In 1516 he traveled to France to enter the service of King Francis I. He spent his last years at the Château de Cloux, near Amboise, where he died on May 2, 1519. Paintings Although Leonardo produced a relatively small number of paintings, many of which remained unfinished, he was nevertheless an extraordinarily innovative and influential artist. During his early years, his style closely paralleled that of Verrocchio, but he gradually moved away from his teacher's stiff, tight, and somewhat rigid treatment of figures to develop a more evocative and atmospheric handling of composition. The early The Adoration of the Magi introduced a new approach to composition, in which the main figures are grouped in the foreground, while the background consists of distant views of imaginary ruins and battle scenes. Leonardo's stylistic innovations are even more apparent in the The Last Supper, in which he re-created a traditional theme in an entirely new way. Instead of showing the 12 apostles as individual figures, he grouped them in dynamic compositional units of three, framing the figure of Christ, who is isolated in the center of the picture. Seated before a pale distant landscape seen through a rectangular opening in the wall, Christ—who is about to announce that one of those present will betray him—represents a calm nucleus while the others respond with animated gestures. In the monumentality of the scene and the weightiness of the figures, Leonardo reintroduced a style pioneered more than a generation earlier by Masaccio, the father of Florentine painting. The Mona Lisa, Leonardo's most famous work, is as well known for its mastery of technical innovations as for the mysteriousness of its legendary smiling subject. This work is a consummate example of two techniques—sfumato and chiaroscuro—of which Leonardo was one of the first great masters. Sfumato is characterized by subtle, almost infinitesimal transitions between color areas, creating a delicately atmospheric haze or smoky effect; it is especially evident in the delicate gauzy robes worn by the sitter and in her enigmatic smile. Chiaroscuro is the technique of modeling and defining forms through contrasts of light and shadow; the sensitive hands of the sitter are portrayed with a luminous modulation of light and shade, while color contrast is used only sparingly. An especially notable characteristic of Leonardo's paintings is his landscape backgrounds, into which he was among the first to introduce atmospheric perspective. The chief masters of the High Renaissance in Florence, including Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, and Fra Bartolommeo, all learned from Leonardo; he completely transformed the school of Milan; and at Parma, Correggio's artistic development was given direction by Leonardo's work. Leonardo's many extant drawings, which reveal his brilliant draftsmanship and his mastery of the anatomy of humans, animals, and plant life, may be found in the principal European collections; the largest group is at Windsor Castle in England. Probably his most famous drawing is the magnificent self-portrait in old age (c. 1510-13, Biblioteca Reale, Turin). Sculptural and Architectural DrawingsBecause none of Leonardo's sculptural projects was brought to completion, his approach to three-dimensional art can only be judged from his drawings. The same strictures apply to his architecture; none of his building projects was actually carried out as he devised them. In his architectural drawings, however, he demonstrates mastery in the use of massive forms, a clarity of expression, and especially a deep understanding of ancient Roman sources. Scientific and Theoretical Projects As a scientist Leonardo towered above all his contemporaries. His scientific theories, like his artistic innovations, were based on careful observation and precise documentation. He understood, better than anyone of his century or the next, the importance of precise scientific observation. Unfortunately, just as he frequently failed to bring to conclusion artistic projects, he never completed his planned treatises on a variety of scientific subjects. His theories are contained in numerous notebooks, most of which were written in mirror script. Because they were not easily decipherable, Leonardo's findings were not disseminated in his own lifetime; had they been published, they would have revolutionized the science of the 16th century. Leonardo actually anticipated many discoveries of modern times. In anatomy he studied the circulation of the blood and the action of the eye. He made discoveries in meteorology and geology, learned the effect of the moon on the tides, foreshadowed modern conceptions of continent formation, and surmised the nature of fossil shells. He was among the originators of the science of hydraulics and probably devised the hydrometer; his scheme for the canalization of rivers still has practical value. He invented a large number of ingenious machines, many potentially useful, among them an underwater diving suit. His flying devices, although not practicable, embodied sound principles of aerodynamics. A creator in all branches of art, a discoverer in most branches of science, and an inventor in branches of technology, Leonardo deserves, perhaps more than anyone, the title of Homo Universalis, Universal Man. </text>
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<text>Leonardo da Vinci</text>
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card_92789.xml
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<text>Lely, Sir Peter (1618-80), English portrait painter, born in Soest, Westphalia, and originally named Pieter van der Faes. He was educated in art in Haarlem, the Netherlands. He settled in London in 1641 and was thereafter commissioned to paint the leading figures of the English court. King Charles II made Lely court painter in 1661 and knighted him in 1680. His painting, fashionably elegant, shows the influence of the Flemish master Sir Anthony van Dyck. Lely's series of paintings called the Windsor Beauties (1660s) is in Hampton Court Palace, London. Another series, the Admirals, is in the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, England. </text>
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<text>Lely, Sir Peter</text>
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card_171285.xml
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<text>Leighton, Frederick, Baron Leighton of Stretton (1830-96), English academic painter, born in Scarborough. He began his art studies at the age of ten in Rome and later studied in London, Dresden, Berlin, and Florence. On his return to London in 1855, his famous picture Cimabue’s Madonna Carried in Procession Through the Streets of Florence was purchased by Queen Victoria. He was made a Royal Academician in 1868. Leighton admired the rich coloring of the landscapes in Spain and Egypt and spent much time painting in those countries. His taste for exoticism is clearly evident in his opulent London home, Leighton House, now a museum.</text>
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<text>Leighton, Frederick</text>
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card_92570.xml
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<text>Leibl, Wilhelm (1844-1900), German painter, whose detailed, realistic pictures of Bavarian peasant life provided an alternative both to Salon academicism and impressionism. Influenced by the French realist Gustave Courbet and by the work of old masters such as Hans Holbein the Younger, Leibl concentrated on faithful representations—portraits and genre scenes—characterized by warm colors and close attention to detail. He was the leader of the so-called Leibl Circle, a group of Bavarian artists with the same aims as his own. </text>
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<text>Leibl, Wilhelm</text>
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card_92238.xml
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<text>Lehmbruck, Wilhelm (1881-1919), German sculptor, who is considered one of the greatest German sculptors of the 20th century and a particularly effective exponent of expressionism. He was born in Duisburg and educated at the Academy of Düsseldorf. As a young man, he traveled in Italy and spent four years in Paris. From 1914 to 1917 he was active in the expressionist movement in Berlin. He used distortions, particularly Gothic elongation, in his work, and is best known for his angular, nude figures, which express dignity as well as despair. One of these, regarded by many critics as his masterpiece, is Kneeling Woman (1911), which, like many of his works, is in the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. It features remarkable vertical-horizontal contrasts and the sculptor's typical distortion through elongation. Other works by Lehmbruck, who committed suicide at the age of 38, are in the Tate Gallery in London and in galleries in Buffalo, New York, and his native Duisburg. </text>
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<text>Lehmbruck, Wilhelm</text>
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card_92015.xml
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<text>Lear, Edward (1812-88), English painter and humorist, born in London. The excellence of his early drawings of birds brought him to the attention of the London Zoological Society, for which he illustrated The Family of the Psittacidae (1832); these illustrations are considered among the most precise and vivid of all ornithological drawings. He traveled (1837-47) throughout Europe and the Near East, recording his travels in the Illustrated Journals of a Landscape Painter. Lear's acutely observant travel books have been overshadowed by the popularity of his light verse, such as the famous poem “The Owl and the Pussycat.” Considered among the masters of the limerick, to which he gave the modern formula and metrical cadence, he wrote A Book of Nonsense (1846), Nonsense Songs (1871), and Laughable Lyrics (1877). </text>
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<text>Lear, Edward</text>
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card_91579.xml
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<text>Leach, Bernard Howell (1887-1979), British potter and ceramist, who pioneered a new 20th-century pottery style based on Oriental traditions. After studying in Japan, where he was influenced by Japanese raku ware, he set up his own workshop in St. Ives, Cornwall, England. Unlike conventional mass-produced, brilliantly glazed ceramics, his tableware, pots, and vases were formed in simple, sturdy shapes and decorated with subtle, often abstract or earthy glazes. He held that pottery was a craft, not an industry, and that potters should perform all phases of their work by hand. </text>
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<text>Leach, Bernard Howell</text>
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card_91302.xml
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<text>Le Nain, family of French 17th-century painters consisting of three brothers—Antoine (1588-1648), Louis (1593-1648), and Mathieu (1607-77). They are known particularly for their scenes of everyday peasant life, which are so deeply imbued with affectionate realism that they triumph over their often clumsy composition. Their paintings are signed only with the family surname, but each Le Nain brother is thought to have concentrated on one particular type of work. Antoine was a miniaturist, whose small paintings on wood or copper are known for their bright colors and fresh, characterful faces. Mathieu specialized in individual and group portraits, often of powerful court figures; his high-style portraits show a more vivacious, luxurious manner than his brothers' peasant scenes. Louis, the most talented of the three, is characterized by simplicity, seriousness, and dignity. His most famous work, The Cart (1641, Louvre, Paris), achieves an almost supernatural peacefulness with its delicate colors and overtones of silvery light. The brothers were forgotten until the 19th century, when the realist painter Gustave Courbet revived their reputation. </text>
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<text>Le Nain</text>
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card_90965.xml
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<text>Le Brun, Charles (1619-90), French painter, born in Paris into a family of artists; his ornate, baroque designs dominated French art for two generations. He was trained in Paris and, under the French classicist Nicolas Poussin, in Rome. Returning to Paris in 1648, Le Brun gradually developed a classical style with a baroque taste for drama, naturalism, and decoration. In 1648, with the French finance minister Jean Baptiste Colbert and others, he helped found the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. Le Brun painted frescoes in such great chateaux as Vaux-le-Vicomte, Sceaux, and the Louvre. Winning King Louis XIV's favor with the canvas Alexander and the Family of Darius (1661, Louvre, Paris), he was made first royal painter and ennobled in 1662. A year later Le Brun became director of the royal Gobelins factory of tapestry and furniture, for which he provided designs. From 1679 to 1684 he directed the decoration of Versailles, including the Ambassadors' Stair, the Hall of Mirrors, and plans for the gardens. </text>
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<text>Le Brun, Charles</text>
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<text>Lawrence, Sir Thomas (1769-1830), one of the foremost English portrait painters of his day. He was born in Bristol. A child prodigy, he was largely self-taught, although he spent some time at the Royal Academy of Arts. In 1789 Lawrence won recognition for his portrait of an actress, Miss Farren (Metropolitan Museum, New York City). He became much in demand, and in 1792 he succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds as principal painter to King George III, who knighted him in 1815. Lawrence was made a member of the Royal Academy in 1794 and served as president of the academy from 1820 to 1830.Lawrence was a brilliant stylist and technician, whose vitality, rich color, and dramatic silhouettes anticipated romantic painting. Although uneven in quality, his work at its best is marked by a taste and elegance that lends distinction to the portraits of his sitters. These portraits include Lady Peel (Frick Collection, New York City); Pope Pius VII and Archduke Charles of Austria (both 1818, Waterloo Chamber, Windsor Castle); and The Calmady Children (1825, Metropolitan Museum). Lawrence was the first English painter to achieve success in Europe. With Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough he stands at the apex of English portrait art.</text>
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<text>Lawrence, Sir Thomas</text>
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<text> Lawrence, Jacob (1917- ), American painter and educator, famous for his narrative series of paintings on African-American historical figures and topics. Born on September 7, 1917, he studied at the Harlem Art workshop in New York City from 1932 to 1939, when he won a scholarship to the American Artists School, also in New York City. He taught painting at New York's Pratt Institute from 1958 to 1965. From 1970 he taught at the University of Washington in Seattle, becoming professor emeritus in 1983. Lawrence's narrative series—dozens of paintings on a single historical figure or topic—generally portray people or periods important to African-American history, such as abolitionists John Brown and Frederick Douglass. Lawrence's simplified graphic forms draw from a variety of artistic traditions, including expressionism and cubism. Among his more famous works are The Life of Harriet Tubman (1939, 40 panels), and The Negro Migration Northward in World War (1942, 60 panels). Lawrence's work has been exhibited in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum of Modern Art, and the Whitney Museum of American Art, all in New York City. Lawrence also illustrated a collection of Aesop's fables, produced posters for the 1972 Olympic Games, and wrote Harriet and the Promised Land (1993). </text>
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<text>Lawrence, Jacob</text>
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card_90391.xml
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<text>Laurencin, Marie (1885-1956), French painter, born near Paris, where she studied art. She was a friend of the French artist Georges Braque and of Pablo Picasso, and exhibited with them in 1907. She was influenced by the flat shapes and bold rhythms that they and other leaders of modern art had introduced. Her subject matter, as in Mother and Child (Detroit Institute of Arts), was often of single or grouped female figures, frail and distant, clothed in pastel pink and blue. Her paintings have a dreamlike atmosphere, and their tones are as charmingly flat as those of early Persian miniatures. She was also a printmaker and a theatrical designer. </text>
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<text>Laurencin, Marie</text>
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card_90202.xml
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<text>Larson, Gary (1950- ), American syndicated cartoonist known for his offbeat humor. He was born in Tacoma, Washington, and educated at Washington State University. An avid reader of comic books as a child, and fond of keeping snakes, frogs, and tarantulas as pets, Larson began sketching animals for his own amusement. After graduating from college in 1972, he played jazz guitar and banjo in local clubs and then worked as a clerk in a music store for several years before concentrating on drawing. In 1979, encouraged by the sale of some cartoons to a magazine, he showed his work to the San Francisco Chronicle, which soon led to a syndication contract for a regular comic strip called “The Far Side.” Although some readers found his cartoons offensive, most readers were delighted with his brand of offbeat, sardonic, and sometimes macabre humor. By 1985 Larson's comic strip appeared in more than 200 newspapers and on coffee mugs, posters, calendars, T-shirts, and other merchandise. He received the National Cartoonist Society's award for best syndicated panel in 1985 and 1988. His cartoons were regularly published in collections that became best-sellers, and by the early 1990s his cartoons were syndicated in more than 900 outlets. </text>
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<text>Larson, Gary</text>
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<text> Lange, Dorothea (1895-1965), American photographer, best known for her pioneering documentary photography, particularly that of the Great Depression during the 1930s. She first worked as a commercial photographer, but in the early '30s, in San Francisco, she began to record life in the streets, concentrating on blunt, realistic portrayals of the plight of the poor and unemployed. Her primary concern was always to record her subjects exactly as she saw them, imbued with a sense of the time and place in which they lived. Working for the Farm Security Administration, Lange produced memorable photographs of migrant workers, which were published in An American Exodus (1939).</text>
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<text>Lange, Dorothea</text>
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<text>Landseer, Sir Edwin Henry (1802-73), English painter, born in London. He achieved a reputation for his astutely realistic portrayals of dogs, usually in gallant poses of highbred species. He also painted deer, eagles, and other wildlife, generally conveying moral sentiments in his pictures. From many of his works, such as Titania and Bottom (1851), engravings, which gained wide popularity, were made by his brother, Thomas Landseer (1795-1880). Sir Edwin executed (1866) the four bronze lions at the base of the Nelson monument in Trafalgar Square, London. Less well known are his small oil sketches and his drawings, which are his finest work. </text>
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<text>Landseer, Sir Edwin Henry</text>
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<text>Lachaise, Gaston (1882-1935), French-American sculptor, born in Paris. He went to the United States in 1906 and studied sculpture in Boston until 1912, when he moved to New York City and began the series of monumental figure pieces for which he is noted. Some of these works, more than life-size, combine weighty proportions with unusual grace; examples are Floating Woman (1927) and the bronze Standing Woman (1930-33), both in the Lyman Allyn Museum, New London, Connecticut. In 1931 he executed reliefs for the RCA Building, and in 1934 for the International Building, both at Rockefeller Center, New York City. Among his many portrait busts, that of the American painter John Marin is considered his best. New York City's Museum of Modern Art honored him with a large retrospective exhibition just before his death in 1935. </text>
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<text>Lachaise, Gaston</text>
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<text>La Tour, Maurice Quentin de (1704-88), French artist, born in Saint-Quentin. After studying art in Paris, he decided at an early age to work in pastels, which were very popular then, and he became a remarkable technician in this medium. In 1737 La Tour exhibited the first of a series of about 150 portraits, which were noted for their penetrating and sardonic analysis of character. Among his finest works is the life-size portrait of the French mistress of King Louis XV, the marquise de Pompadour, now in the Louvre, Paris. Many of La Tour's works are in the St.-Quentin Museum. </text>
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<text>La Tour, Maurice Quentin de</text>
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<text>La Farge, John (1835-1910), American painter, known for his murals, watercolors, and stained glass decorations. He was born in New York City. He studied with the French painter Thomas Couture (1815-79) in Paris and the American painter William Morris Hunt in the United States; he painted landscapes and figure pieces of a simple, decorative nature. La Farge was commissioned to decorate Trinity Church, Boston, in 1876 and, as a result, became largely involved in mural work for most of his career. Experimenting with stained-glass decorations, he developed and subsequently manufactured an opalescent glass that became widely used. In 1886, on a visit to Japan and the South Sea islands, he painted many watercolors of native life. His work had considerable influence on American mural painting because of its classical simplicity and fine sense of design. The Ascension (1888), an altarpiece in the Church of the Ascension, New York City, and four lunettes in the Supreme Court room of the State Capitol, Saint Paul, Minnesota, are considered among his most important mural compositions. La Farge's notable work in stained glass includes the Watson memorial window at Trinity Church, Buffalo, New York, and the peacock window in the Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, Massachusetts. </text>
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<text>La Farge, John</text>
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<text>Kuniyoshi, Yasuo (1893-1953), American painter, born in Okayama, Japan. He went to the United States in 1906 and studied in Los Angeles and at the Art Students League in New York City. Kuniyoshi's early paintings were marked by somber black and gray hues, severely stylized forms, and traces of Oriental tonalities. Subsequently he established himself as one of the most popular artists of the U.S. with a series of still-life paintings of early American objects such as weather vanes and old crockery. In his arrangement of these motifs Kuniyoshi imparted an exotic flavor to his commonplace subject matter. He was also known for large studies of nudes and of female circus performers, such as Amazing Juggler (1952, Des Moines Art Center, Des Moines, Iowa), depicting a grotesquely masked woman juggler on a bicycle. </text>
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<text>Kuniyoshi, Yasuo</text>
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<text>Kuhn, Walt (1880-1949), American painter, born in New York City. After studying in many European countries, he helped organize the famous Armory Show (International Exhibition of Modern Art, New York City, 1913). He is noted chiefly for his vigorous studies of circus performers, chorines, and trapeze athletes. His Blue Clown (1931, Whitney Museum, New York City) is the most popular example of his work. He also did a number of brilliant still lifes, as well as designs for musical reviews. Kuhn contributed substantially to the introduction of the techniques and theories of modern art to the American public and to many American artists. </text>
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<text>Kuhn, Walt</text>
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<text>Ku K'ai-Chih (circa 345-c. 405), Chinese painter of the Six Dynasties period, one of the greatest artists of Chinese antiquity. In his art, he reacted against the brightly colored, artificial style of his day to concentrate on drawing human figures with considerable sensitivity and gracefulness. Few of his paintings remain in their original form—his famous portraits and religious pictures have all disappeared—but one silk scroll, Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies (British Museum, London), is either an original or a very early copy. It illustrates his style of delicate, almost wispy figures that seem to float on the surface of the scroll. Nymph of the Lo River, an attributed work existing in two copies (Freer Gallery, Washington, D.C., and Palace Museum, Taiwan), is credited by traditional Chinese art historians as being one of the first and most influential Chinese landscape paintings. </text>
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<text>Ku K'ai-Chih</text>
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<text>Kórin, full name Ogata Kórin (1659-1716), Japanese artist, the greatest painter of the 17th- and 18th-century decorative school. Born into a family of painters, he is thought to have studied with the famous Kano school of art masters. He became especially noted for his paintings of flowers, animals, and landscapes, which attained an elegance and stylized grace unsurpassed in Japanese art. Kórin's best-known works, his two sixfold Irises screens (Nezu Art Museum, Tokyo), shimmer with blue flowers and green leaves against a gold-leaf background. His ink strokes and lines were often daringly spare, but his color was highly complex, achieving infinite gradations of iridescent shadings; he often mixed ink and gouache directly on the paper to create spontaneous and unexpected effects. Kórin's masterpiece, the pair of twofold screens, White and Red Prunus in the Spring (National Museum, Tokyo), shows two stylized trees arching over a sinuously drawn stream; the swirling pattern of the stream directly inspired the famous “whiplash” line in late-19th-century Art Nouveau in Europe. </text>
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<text>Korin</text>
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<text>Kollwitz, Käthe Schmidt (1867-1945), German artist, born in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia), and educated in Berlin and Königsberg. In 1898 her illustrations for Die Weber (The Weavers), a play by the German playwright Gerhart Hauptmann, first presented the figures of a mother, a child, and death, dominant motifs in her work. Almost exclusively a graphic artist, Kollwitz's etchings, woodcuts, and lithographs are sensitive and compassionate portrayals of the working classes. Her work, based on tragic subjects and drawn with great simplicity, was denounced by the Nazi regime in Germany, and she lived in virtual seclusion from 1933 until her death. </text>
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<text>Kollwitz, Kathe Schmidt</text>
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<text>Kokoschka, Oskar (1886-1980), Austrian painter of expressionist portraits and landscapes. Kokoschka was born in Pöchlarn, a Danube town, on March 1, 1886. He studied (1905-8) at the Vienna School of Arts and Crafts. As an early exponent of the avant-garde expressionist movement, he began to paint psychologically penetrating portraits of Viennese physicians, architects, and artists. Among these works are Hans Tietze and Erica Tietze-Conrat (1909, Museum of Modern Art, New York City), August Forel (1910, Mannheim Art Gallery, Germany), and Self-Portrait (1913, Museum of Modern Art). Kokoschka was wounded in World War I and diagnosed as psychologically unstable. He taught art at the Dresden Academy from 1919 to 1924. During this time he painted The Power of Music (1919, Dresden Paintings Collection, Dresden). A succeeding 7-year period of travel in Europe and the Middle East resulted in a number of robust, brilliantly colored landscapes and figure pieces, painted with great freedom and exuberance. Many of them are views of harbors, mountains, and cities. Examples from this period include Harbor of Marseilles (1925, City Art Museum of Saint Louis, Missouri), View of Cologne (1956, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum, Cologne), and Tower Bridge (1925-26, Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minnesota). Kokoschka, one of the artists denounced by the Nazi government of Germany as degenerate, moved to England in 1938, where he painted antiwar pictures during World War II and became a British subject in 1947. After the war he visited the U.S. and settled in Switzerland. He died in Montreux on February 22, 1980. Best known as a painter, Kokoschka was also a writer. His literary works include poetry and plays not translated into English and the collection of short stories, A Sea Ringed with Visions (1956; trans. 1962). </text>
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<text>Kokoschka, Oskar</text>
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card_85880.xml
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<text>Kneller, Sir Godfrey (1646-1723), English painter, born in Lubeck, Germany, and trained in Amsterdam. He immigrated to England in 1675 with an established reputation as a portraitist. His patrons included the English monarchs Charles II, James II, William III, Mary II, Anne, and George I; his work also included portraits of the important members of their courts. Kneller also painted other European reigning monarchs and numerous portraits of celebrities. Kneller's prolific output may be characterized as technically competent if uninspired, satisfying the requirements of his patrons for flattering, elegant presentations suitable to the mores of the times. </text>
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<text>Kneller, Sir Godfrey</text>
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card_85730.xml
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<text>Klinger, Max (1857-1920), German etcher, painter, and sculptor, born in Leipzig, and trained in Karlsruhe, Berlin, and Paris. Depicting mythological and allegorical subjects, he achieved striking, unorthodox effects, first in etchings, which reveal a restless, tortured imagination as well as powerful technical accomplishments, and then in paintings, such as Christ on Olympus (1897, Museum of the 20th Century, Vienna). After 1894 Klinger devoted himself to sculpture in a forceful, realistic style, as in a colored marble statue of the composer Ludwig van Beethoven (1892, Museum der Bildenden Künste, Leipzig) and a bronze bust of the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1902, Weimar). </text>
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<text>Klinger, Max</text>
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card_85396.xml
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<text>Kline, Franz Josef (1910-62), American painter, born in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, and educated at the School of Fine and Applied Art of Boston University and Heatherly School of Fine Arts in London. Kline settled in New York City in 1938, soon becoming associated with the abstract expressionist school of painting as it evolved during and immediately after World War II. With his first one-man exhibition in 1950, Kline attracted a great deal of attention because of his use of bold black areas, resembling huge fragments of Japanese calligraphy, against a plain white background, typified by his Mahoning (1956, Whitney Museum, New York City). In later years Kline sometimes added touches of strong color to his basically black-and-white canvases as in Dahlia (1959, Whitney Museum). During the 1950s Kline taught art at Black Mountain College in North Carolina, Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, New York, the Philadelphia Museum School of Art, and Cooper Union in New York City.</text>
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<text>Kline, Franz Josef</text>
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card_85097.xml
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<text>Klimt, Gustav (1862-1918), Viennese painter, who was the founder of the Vienna Secession, the Austrian Art Nouveau movement. His early work, consisting principally of large murals for theaters, was painted in an unremarkable naturalistic style. After 1898, Klimt's work moved toward greater innovativeness and imagination, taking on a more decorative, symbolic aspect. He continued to paint murals, but the harsh public criticism of the three murals Philosophy, Medicine, and Jurisprudence (1900-2, Vienna University; destroyed 1945) led him to concentrate on panel painting. Klimt's best-known works are his later portraits, such as Frau Fritsa Reidler (1906, Österreichische Galerie, Vienna), with their flat unshadowed surfaces, translucent, mosaiclike colors and forms, and sinuous, curling background lines and patterns. Among his most admired works is the series of mosaic murals (1905-9) in the Palais Stoclet, an opulent private mansion in Brussels designed by the architect Josef Hoffmann, who was also a member of the Vienna Secession movement. </text>
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<text>Klimt, Gustav</text>
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card_84741.xml
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<text> Klee, Paul (1879-1940), Swiss painter, watercolorist, and etcher, who was one of the most original masters of modern art. Belonging to no specific art movement, he created works known for their fantastic dream images, wit, and imagination. A German citizen, Klee lived much of his life in Switzerland. He was born in Münchenbuchsee, near Bern, Switzerland, on December 18, 1879, and moved to Munich in 1898, where he studied art at a private school and at the Munich Academy. His earliest works were pencil landscape studies that showed an impressionist influence. Until 1912 he also produced many black-and-white etchings; the overtones of fantasy and satire in these works showed the influence of 20th-century expressionism as well as of such master printmakers as Francisco Goya and William Blake. Klee was a teacher at the Bauhaus, Germany's most advanced art school, from 1920 to 1931. A trip to North Africa in 1914 stimulated Klee strongly and marked the beginning of his fully mature style, in which he declared himself “possessed by color.” His paintings and watercolors for the next 20 years showed a mastery of delicate, dreamlike color harmonies, which he usually used to create flat, semiabstract compositions or even mosaiclike effects, as in Pastoral (1927, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). Klee was also a master draftsman, and many of his works are elaborated line drawings with subject matter that grew out of fantasy or dream imagery; he described his technique in these drawings as “taking a line for a walk.” Twittering Machine (1922, Museum of Modern Art), for instance, with its fluid, wiry, birdlike motifs, is a simple composition of interconnected lines and circular shapes, with an evocative effect that is much greater than its simple means. After 1935, afflicted by a progressive skin and muscular disease, Klee adopted a broad, flat style characterized by thick, crayonlike lines and large areas of subdued color. His subject matter during this period grew increasingly brooding and gloomy, as in the nightmarish Death and Fire (1940, Berner Kunstmuseum, Bern, Switzerland). Klee died in Muralto, Switzerland, on June 29, 1940. His work influenced all later 20th-century surrealist and nonobjective artists and was a prime source for the budding abstract expressionist movement. </text>
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<text>Klee, Paul</text>
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card_84619.xml
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<text> Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig (1880-1938), German painter, who was one of the leading practitioners of expressionism. He was influenced by the strong colors and compositional distortions of the neoimpressionists and particularly by the expressive simplification of African and Oceanian woodcarving. As a founding member of the expressionist group Die Brücke (“The Bridge”) in Dresden in 1905, Kirchner tried to distill natural forms in radical and sometimes brutal simplifications. In such paintings as Self-Portrait with Model (1907, Kunsthalle, Hamburg), his bold lines and clashing colors create a sense of violent emotion. Moving to Berlin in 1911, Kirchner produced some of the most characteristic work of German expressionism, especially in scenes with women, such as Five Women in the Street (1913, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum, Cologne, Germany), in which grotesque distortions mock the mannered artificiality of Berlin society. </text>
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<text>Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig</text>
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card_84364.xml
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<text>Kienholz, Edward (1927- ), American sculptor, born in Fairfield, Washington. Brought up on a farm where he learned the practical skills of carpentry and plumbing and where he began to paint, Kienholz attended Eastern Washington College of Education. In Las Vegas in the early 1950 s he began to construct wooden figures in relief, sometimes incorporating objects from junkyards. By 1956 his creations were too large to hang on walls and by 1959 had evolved into nearly life-size freestanding constructions. The works depicted squalid American locales and fused strong psychological content with social realism. Roxy's (1961) recreated a Las Vegas bordello, while The Beanery (1965), considered his masterpiece, was a reproduction of a bar. It includes 17 figures displayed under dim lights and sprayed with a compound of food and cleanser smells. Kienholz married photographer Nancy Reddin in 1972, and from 1973 they collaborated on sculpture. They moved to West Berlin (1974) and for the next few years focused on German cultural themes. They subsequently divided their time between Germany and Hope, Idaho, where they owned an art gallery. Kienholz's works are in the permanent collections at such museums as the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York and the Museum of Modern Art in Tokyo. </text>
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<text>Kienholz, Edward</text>
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card_84147.xml
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<text>Kent, Rockwell (1882-1971), American painter, printmaker, and illustrator, born in Tarrytown, New York. He attended Columbia University School of Architecture. After 1905 Kent spent most of his time traveling and painting in Maine, New Hampshire, Newfoundland, Greenland, and South America. Kent preferred painting the stark, bleak aspects of nature. Simple but strong, his landscapes feature formally balanced, decorative areas; Winter (1907, Metropolitan Museum, New York City) is typical of his work. One of the foremost U.S. illustrators, his wood engravings for Moby Dick, The Canterbury Tales, and Shakespeare's plays are his finest achievements in this field. </text>
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<text>Kent, Rockwell</text>
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card_83500.xml
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<text>Kelly, Ellsworth (1923- ), American abstract painter, best known for his experiments with color. Many of his paintings of the 1950s consist simply of an abstract, carefully defined patch of bright color on a neutral background. He also produced some of the earliest shaped canvases, in which a canvas is stretched over a three-dimensional framework to create the desired shape beneath the paint. His best-known later works have been his panel paintings, which consist of several canvases, sometimes as many as 64, joined together; each canvas is painted a different and brilliantly intense color, creating a vibrant, carefully balanced whole. </text>
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<text>Kelly, Ellsworth</text>
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card_83244.xml
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<text> Kauffmann, (Maria Ann) Angelica (1741-1807), Swiss painter, whose graceful, sentimental style was extremely popular in the late 18th century. Essentially a rococo painter, she imbibed certain neoclassical motifs on trips to Italy (1762-63), concentrating on historical and mythological scenes. Kauffmann produced more than 500 paintings. She lived in London (1766-81) and in Rome (after 1781), painting elegant, technically brilliant works such as Cupid's Wand (1793, Attingham Park, near Shrewsbury, England). In London, where she was a founding member of the Royal Academy, she also did much decorative work on ceilings, walls, and furniture for the British architect and interior designer Robert Adam. </text>
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<text>Kauffmann, Angelica</text>
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card_83193.xml
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<text>Kano (family), family of Japanese painters that originated in the 15th century and persisted until the 19th century. As official court painters under successive shoguns, the Kano led the art movements of several centuries. They produced works in a wide variety of styles—ranging from highly colored scenes to delicate black-and-white ink drawings—but always tended to represent the professional, decorative school of painting as opposed to the more austere tradition of the amateur scholar-artist. The family was founded by Masanobu (1453-90), who based his style on that of Chinese ink painting, which relied on monochromatic ink washes for its subtle and usually delicate effects. His son Motonobu (1476-1539) continued the idealistic style of his father, while introducing the firm brush line that characterized much of later Kano painting. The giant of the family was Eitoku (1543-90), whose grandiose, highly colored panels and screens set a new standard of power and sumptuousness, although he was also capable of painting in the subdued, expressive ink style of his forebears. In 1621 the Kano family split into two branches, one in Kyoto, the other in Tokyo, or Edo; principal representatives were Sanraku (1559-1635), Tanyu (1602-47), Naonobu (1607-50), Sansetsu (1590-1651), and Tsunenobu (1636-1713). The family's work continued in the tradition of Eitoku, characterized by brilliant displays of color and detail, which are saved from ostentation or vulgarity by a firm underpinning of strong brush strokes and bold design. </text>
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<text>Kano</text>
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card_82711.xml
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<text> Kandinsky, Wassily (1866-1944), Russian painter, whose exploration of the possibilities of abstraction make him one of the most important innovators in modern art. Both as an artist and as a theorist he played a pivotal role in the development of abstract art. Born in Moscow, December 4, 1866, Kandinsky studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich, Germany (1896-1900). His early paintings were executed in a naturalistic style, but in 1909, after a trip to Paris during which he was highly impressed by the works of the Fauvists and postimpressionists, his paintings became more highly colored and loosely organized. In 1910 he executed what is considered the first totally abstract work in modern art, a watercolor entitled Composition I or Abstraction, an arrangement in blue, red, and green that makes no reference to objects of the physical world and derives its inspiration and title from music. In 1911, along with Franz Marc and other German expressionists, Kandinsky formed the Blue Rider group (so called for Kandinsky's love of blue and Marc's love of horses). He produced both abstract and figurative works during this period, all of which were characterized by brilliant colors and complex patterns. Kandinsky's influence on the course of 20th-century art was further increased by his activities as a theorist and teacher. In 1912 he published Concerning the Spiritual in Art, the first theoretical treatise on abstraction, which spread his ideas through Europe. He also taught at the Moscow Academy of Fine Arts (1918-21) and at the Bauhaus in Dessau, Germany (1922-33). After World War I, Kandinsky's abstractions became increasingly geometric in form, as he abandoned his earlier fluid style in favor of sharply etched outlines and clear patterns. Composition VIII No. 260 (1923, Guggenheim Museum, New York City), for instance, is composed solely of lines, circles, arcs, and other simple geometric forms. In very late works such as Circle and Square (1943, private collection), he refines this style into a more elegant, complex mode that resulted in beautifully balanced, jewel-like pictures. He was one of the most influential artists of his generation. As one of the first explorers of the principles of nonrepresentational or “pure” abstraction, Kandinsky can be considered the father of abstract expressionism, the dominant school of painting since World War II. Kandinsky died in Neuilly-sur-Seine, a suburb of Paris, on December 13, 1944. </text>
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<text>Kandinsky, Wassily</text>
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card_82681.xml
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<text>Jordaens, Jacob (1593-1678), Flemish baroque painter, born in Antwerp (now in Belgium). About 1615 Jordaens was admitted to the Antwerp art guild. By 1621 he had his own workshop and was head of the guild. His talent attracted the attention of the Flemish master Peter Paul Rubens, who employed him as an assistant. Jordaens was clearly influenced by Rubens, and although his style was not as refined as that of Rubens, he is nevertheless considered one of the leaders of northern baroque art. Aided by his students, Jordaens painted large decorative works, especially subjects of revelry, grand banquets, and vivacious genre scenes. His color is brilliant and sensuous, emphasized by luminous whites and deep reddish tones. Jordaens became famous and was overwhelmed with commissions, the most important coming after the death of Rubens in 1640. </text>
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<text>Jordaens, Jacob</text>
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card_82185.xml
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<text>Jongkind, Johan Barthold (1819-91), Dutch painter and etcher. In 1846 he went to Paris and studied with the French artist Eugène Isabey (1804-86). Jongkind painted some excellent forest landscapes, but seascapes make up the main body of his work. He developed a technique to illustrate the effects of light by using juxtaposed strokes of unmixed colors, foreshadowing the impressionist techniques of the French painter Claude Monet and others. He revisited his own country often, painting the countryside around Rotterdam and Dordrecht. As an etcher he ranks high, having executed numerous fine Dutch village scenes and seascapes. </text>
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<text>Jongkind, Johan Barthold</text>
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card_82129.xml
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<text> Johns, Jasper (1930- ), American painter, who has played a leading role in the development of mid-20th-century American art. In 1954 he began painting works in a manner radically different from the abstract expressionist style that then dominated American art. His canvases were devoted to such familiar objects as targets, American flags, numbers, and alphabet letters. He presented these subjects with objectivity and precision, applying paint very thickly, so that the paintings became objects in themselves rather than reproductions of recognizable items. This idea of art-as-object became a potent influence on later sculpture as well as painting. By the end of the 1950s Johns's paintings showed a freer, looser arrangement. In some of them, he attached real objects—such as rulers and compasses—to the canvas. False Start (1959, Scull Collection, New York City)—in which he stenciled intentionally incorrect labels over painted objects and patches of color—is a playful, punning work that was an immediate forerunner of pop art. Johns broke ground again with a four-painting cycle entitled “The Seasons,” shown in New York City in early 1987. The 75 x 50-inch paintings were considered especially significant in American art history. </text>
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<text>Johns, Jasper</text>
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<text>John, Augustus Edwin (1878-1961), English portrait painter, born in Tenby, Wales. Influenced by the French postimpressionist painters, John developed a vigorous and original style, marked by fluent brush technique and striking character portrayal. His use of large areas of brilliant color, broad rhythms, and a free technique established him as one of the leading portraitists of his time. His sitters included royalty, literary giants, other artists, musicians, and theatrical luminaries. Among these are Dylan Thomas (circa 1938, National Museum of Wales, Cardiff) and Tallulah Bankhead (c. 1933, National Portrait Gallery, Washington, D.C.). John also painted and etched many gypsy scenes. </text>
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<text>John, Augustus Edwin</text>
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card_81535.xml
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<text>Jacopo Della Quercia (1374-1438), one of the earliest Italian Renaissance sculptors, best remembered for his fountain for the public square of Siena, the Fonte Gaia (1419; now in Palazzo Pubblico, Siena), which has been replaced by a copy. Born in La Quercia (now Madonna della Quercia), his earliest known sculpture, the tomb (1406) of Ilaria del Carretto (died 1405) in Lucca Cathedral, is entirely renaissance in conception and execution. It is in the form of a Roman sarcophagus, with winged cherubs bearing heavy garlands carved in extremely high relief around the sides. The serene effigy of Ilaria lies on the lid, swathed in superbly carved folds of drapery, her face radiant with peace. A bronze relief, Zacharias in the Temple, for the font of the baptistery of Siena Cathedral was completed in 1430. His 15 biblical marble relief panels (begun 1425) in the portal of the Church of San Petronio, Bologna, were left incomplete at his death, but the Genesis scenes he sculpted for the portal are among his most striking creations, in the bold simplicity of their compositions, the sure handling of anatomy, and their effect of monumentality. These panels, and Jacopo's other works, were a direct inspiration to Michelangelo and other masters of the High Renaissance. </text>
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<text>Jacopo Della Quercia</text>
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card_81289.xml
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<text>Jackson, Alexander Young (1882-1974), Canadian painter, who, as a member of the Group of Seven, took his inspiration from the Canadian north. During World War I he was an official artist for Canadian war memorials. After 1919, Jackson devoted himself to individualistic impressionist-inspired paintings—landscapes, seaside scenes, trees, nature subjects—such as his Valley of the Gouffre River (1933, McMichael Canadian Collection, Kleinburg, Ontario). </text>
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<text>Jackson, Alexander Young</text>
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<text>Inness, George (1825-94), American painter, born near Newburgh, New York. He was largely self-taught but traveled in Europe. At first he was influenced by the detailed, romantic depictions of nature of the Hudson River school, particularly the work of Asher B. Durand and Thomas Cole. The work of Inness's middle period reflects his interest in the French open-air painters of the Barbizon school and the work of the English landscapist John Constable. The charming Hackensack Meadows (1859, New York Public Library) exemplifies, in its more direct, colorful, and decorative treatment, his increasing feeling for mass over detail, and his fine mastery of space and atmosphere are revealed in Delaware Valley (1865, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). He was made a full member of the National Academy of Design in 1868. In 1878 Inness settled permanently in Montclair, New Jersey. He was particularly successful and famous during the last years of his life. Many of his landscapes of this period show a marked preference for the soft effects of early spring and the glowing russet hues of autumn. </text>
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<text>Inness, George</text>
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<text>Hunt, William Morris (1824-79), American painter, born in Brattleboro, Vermont, and educated at Harvard University. He studied with the French academic painter Thomas Couture (1815-79) in Paris, where he made friends with and was influenced by the French landscape and genre painter of the Barbizon school Jean François Millet. In 1855 Hunt returned to the U.S. and later opened an art school in Boston. He introduced the Barbizon school practice of painting in the open air and was instrumental in establishing the vogue, still followed by many Americans, of studying art in Paris. Hunt became a fashionable portrait painter, his sitters including such notables as Lemuel Shaw (1781-1861), chief justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Court. His importance to American painting, however, lay chiefly in his application of new French methods to landscape, as, for example, in Bathers (1877, Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, Massachusetts) and American Falls (Corcoran Gallery, Washington, D.C.). </text>
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<text>Hunt, William Morris</text>
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<text>Hunt, William Holman (1827-1910), English painter, who, together with Dante Gabriel Rossetti and J. E. Millais, was a founder in 1848 of the Pre-Raphaelite movement. In all of his works, many of which are biblical scenes, he strove for Pre-Raphaelite goals of serious moral content, direct study from nature, and historical authenticity. His paintings—of which perhaps the two best known are Finding of Christ in the Temple (1854, City Museum, Birmingham, England) and Scapegoat (1854, Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Sunlight, England)—are minutely detailed and painted in a style characterized by straight compositional lines and bright, relatively crude colors. </text>
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<text>Hunt, William Holman</text>
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<text>Hundertwasser, professional name of Friedrich Stowasser (1928- ), Austrian graphic artist and painter, whose decorative abstract style follows in the Secessionist (Art Nouveau) tradition of Gustav Klimt and Egon Schiele. His hypnotic, sometimes whimsical work shows an almost obsessional preoccupation with spiral forms: Buildings, landscapes, and human shapes are all transformed into abstract dynamic spirals. His coloring shows Oriental and Persian influence, concentrating on gold and silver and especially on phosphorescent red and green. </text>
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<text>Hundertwasser</text>
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card_170923.xml
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<text>Hui Tsung (1082-1135), last emperor of the Northern Sung dynasty of China (1100-26), known for his patronage of art as well as his own artistic endeavors. A weak ruler, he was unable to check the encroachment of the northern Liao and then formed an alliance with the Chin dynasty of Manchuria against them. The Chin, however, having defeated the Liao, then turned upon their ally, whose capital, Kaifeng, they captured in 1126. Taken prisoner, Hui Tsung died an exile in Manchuria. An accomplished calligrapher and painter of minutely executed birds and flowers, Hui Tsung also had a catalog compiled that included all known artists and paintings from the 3d century on.</text>
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<text>Hui Tsung</text>
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card_170522.xml
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<text>Hudson River School, the first group of landscape painters to emerge in the U.S. after independence from Great Britain. The Hudson River school flourished between 1820 and 1880. Many of the artists associated with the group lived and painted in the Catskill Mountains region of New York State, particularly along the Hudson River. Early members of the school include Thomas Cole, Asher B. Durand, and Thomas Doughty (1793-1856). Their work is characterized by meticulous and realistic attention to detail and a poetic feeling for nature characteristic of romanticism.Other artists who painted in the West, in Mexico, South America, or in the Mediterranean countries are considered to be members of the school because their landscapes display the same romantic love of nature, formal composition, and precise detail that are typical of the Hudson River school. The so-called Panoramists, who painted in the style of the school and attempted to express the scenic beauty of the Rocky and Sierra mountains as well as regions outside the U.S., include Frederick Edwin Church, Albert Bierstadt, and Thomas Moran (1837-1926). The Hudson River school had an important influence on the work of such later landscape masters as George Inness and Alexander Wyant (1836-92).</text>
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<text>Hudson River School</text>
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card_79351.xml
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<text>Hsia Kuei (circa 1180-1230), Chinese scroll painter of the Sung dynasty, who was one of the great masters of the Southern Sung landscape style. He was active in the imperial painting academy at Hangchow during the reign of Sung emperor Ning-tsung (reigned 1195-1224). Along with his celebrated contemporary artist Ma Yüan, he broke with the elaborate ornamental style of the period to cultivate a simpler, more emotional mode based on the work of earlier masters of the T'ang dynasty. Hsia's landscapes, characterized by asymmetrical composition—painting only one corner out of four—reduced human figures and buildings to minor accents. He was especially noted for his brilliant ink technique, in which extremely subtle, graded ink washes and overlapping brushstrokes created complex atmospheric effects of mist, sky, and infinity. In Clear View of Streams and Mountains (National Palace Museum, Taipei), a 9-m (30-ft) hand scroll, the panoramic sweep of landscape contains a full use of his varied brushwork. Along with Ma Yüan, he gave his name to the succeeding Ma-Hsia school of landscape painting. </text>
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<text>Hsia Kuei</text>
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card_170380.xml
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<text>Housman, Laurence (1865-1959), English author and illustrator, the brother of the poet A. E. Housman. He was born in Bromsgrove, Worcestershire, and studied art in London. He wrote and illustrated many kinds of books, ranging from fairy tales to biographies. He is best known for his plays, especially Victoria Regina (1934), banned because it dealt with living members of the royal family. His other dramas include Little Plays of St. Francis (1922-35), Palace Plays (1930-33), and Old Testament Plays (1951). Notable among his other works are the novel An Englishwoman’s Love Letters (1900), his autobiography, The Unexpected Years (1936), and A.E.H. (1937).</text>
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<text>Housman, Laurence</text>
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card_79081.xml
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<text>Houdon, Jean Antoine (1741-1828), French sculptor, who was the greatest portrait sculptor of his day, born in Versailles. He won the Prix de Rome for sculpture in 1761 and studied in Italy until 1769. After his return to Paris in 1771, he exhibited his bust of the French Encyclopedist Denis Diderot, the first of a long series of sculpture portraits of eminent men of his time. In 1778 he made a bust of Benjamin Franklin and the death mask of the French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau. In 1781 he exhibited his famous seated statue of the French satirist and philosopher Voltaire. By this time Houdon was widely known. He was invited to America, where, in 1785, he executed from life the model of his famous statue of President George Washington (1788-92, State Capitol, Richmond, Virginia). He also made likenesses of Thomas Jefferson and other famous Americans. Houdon's prestige remained high throughout the Napoleonic era, and he executed a bust of Napoleon. Houdon's sculpture is notable for its penetrating characterization, clarity, and sensitive modeling. His works, and authorized copies, are to be found in museums, libraries, and public buildings throughout the United States and Europe. </text>
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<text>Houdon, Jean Antoine</text>
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card_78653.xml
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<text>Hoppner, John (1758-1810), English painter, born in London. He began exhibiting at the Royal Academy in 1778. He was appointed portrait painter to the prince of Wales, later King George IV, in 1789 and was elected full academician in 1795. Hoppner was greatly influenced in his style by the paintings of the English portraitist Sir Joshua Reynolds. To Reynolds's dignified realism Hoppner added boldness of execution, a graceful, though artificial, style, and brilliant colors. </text>
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<text>Hoppner, John</text>
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card_78512.xml
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<text>Hooch, Pieter de (1629-after 1684), Dutch painter of domestic scenes from Dutch life. He was born in Rotterdam. From 1654 he was a member of the Guild of Saint Luke at Delft, and there he painted his finest works. He was noted for his paintings of distinctive interiors, in which the typical effect is strong sunlight falling into a room and illuminating a standing figure, such as a maidservant, or a family group seated at a table. In these works, enhanced by sharp patterns of golden light, de Hooch (or Hoogh) captured the simple, expressive gestures of people occupied with their daily chores. In the painting of genre interiors, de Hooch ranks second only to his great Dutch contemporary, Jan Vermeer. De Hooch worked in Amsterdam during his later years. Although his subject matter showed little change, his works of this period are generally considered less noteworthy than his superb Delft productions. Examples of his interior scenes include The Pantry (circa 1658, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam) and The Card Players (1658, Buckingham Palace, London), both of which show some similarity to the work of Vermeer. He also painted courtyards, such as Courtyard of a House (1658, National Gallery, London). </text>
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<text>Hooch, Pieter de</text>
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card_77886.xml
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<text>Honthorst, Gerrit van (1590-1656), Dutch Mannerist painter, best known for his night scenes in the style of the Italian baroque painter Caravaggio. Initially trained in Utrecht, he took up the Italian manner during a trip (1619-21) to Rome, specializing in a style characterized by sharp contrasts of light and shadow (chiaroscuro), strong color, and dramatically posed figures. Many of his early paintings were on biblical themes, while later in his career he concentrated on everyday (genre) scenes and portraits, especially after his appointment as court painter at The Hague in 1637. He was particularly noted for such dramatically illuminated night scenes as Christ Before the High Priest (circa 1617, National Gallery, London) and The Concert (c. 1620, Galleria Borghese, Rome). His Caravaggesque style influenced the early works of Rembrandt, and his late works, in a lighter and more neoclassical style, influenced the works of the master Dutch portraitist Frans Hals. </text>
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<text>Honthorst, Gerrit van</text>
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card_169964.xml
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<text>Homer, Winslow (1836-1910), American naturalist painter, who is often considered, along with Thomas Eakins, one of the greatest American 19th-century artists.Born Feb. 24, 1836, in Boston, Homer was almost entirely self-taught as a painter. He served an apprenticeship in a lithographic firm, and soon moved from copying the work of other artists to creating his own original lithographs. In 1857 he sought work as a magazine illustrator, becoming a regular contributor to the popular Harper’s Weekly. His illustrations, primarily engravings, were characterized by clean outlines, simplified forms, dramatic contrasts of light and dark, and lively groupings of figures. These qualities were to remain important characteristics of his art throughout his career.During the American Civil War, Homer made several trips to the Virginia front, where he painted his first important oil, Prisoners from the Front (1866, Metropolitan Museum, New York City), a work notable for its cool objectivity and vigorous realism. In 1856 he spent a year in France, but although his interest in the painterly possibilities of natural light ran parallel to that of the early impressionists, he was not directly influenced by French art. In 1873 he began working in watercolor, a medium that became as important to him as oil. His subject matter of the 1870s was primarily rural or idyllic—scenes of farm life; children at play; and resort scenes peopled with fashionable women; two of the best known of these are Long Branch, New Jersey (1869, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) and Crack the Whip (1872, Butler Inst., Youngstown, Ohio).A stay in England (1881-82), during which Homer lived in a fishing village, led to a permanent change in his subject matter. Thereafter he concentrated on large-scale scenes of nature, particularly scenes of the sea, of its fishermen, and of their families. Taking up solitary residence on the Maine coast at Prout’s Neck, he produced such masterpieces of realism as Eight Bells (1886, Addison Gallery, Andover, Mass.); in it the drama of the sea scene is imbued with an epic, heroic quality that symbolizes the dominant theme of his maturity: human struggle with the forces of nature.After 1884, Homer spent many of his winters in Florida, in the Bahamas, and in Cuba. His many scenes of the Tropics were painted mostly in watercolor, and his technique was the most advanced of its day—loose, fresh, spontaneous, almost impressionistic, although it never lost its basic grounding in naturalism. In 1899 he painted his most famous work, the frightening Gulf Stream (Metropolitan Museum), which depicts a solitary black sailor in a small, disabled boat, beset by sharks and alone on a billowing sea.In the grandeur of his themes and the strength of his designs, he became a dominant influence on the American realist style of painting. Homer died in Prout’s Neck on Sept. 29, 1910.</text>
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card_77783.xml
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<text> Holbein, Hans, the Younger (1497?-1543), German artist, one of the most accomplished masters of Renaissance portraiture, and a designer of woodcuts, stained glass, and jewelry. Holbein was born in Augsburg. At an early age he began to study painting with his father, Hans Holbein the Elder (1460-1524), a recognized artist in the Flemish tradition who was a skilled portraitist. By 1515 Holbein the Younger had established himself in Basel, Switzerland, as a book illustrator. He designed many title-page woodcuts and completed a series of pen-and-ink sketches for The Praise of Folie by the Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus. During a trip to Italy in 1518, Holbein encountered the works of the Italian Renaissance painters Andrea Mantegna and Leonardo da Vinci. The impact of these and other artists on Holbein's work can be seen in the Renaissance modeling and composition in his early portrait Erasmus of Rotterdam (1523, Louvre, Paris) and in his renowned Dead Christ and the Passion of Christ (both Kunstmuseum, Basel) and the altarpiece Madonna of Burgomaster Meyer (Grand Ducal Palace, Darmstadt), all completed between 1519 and 1526. In each of these Holbein showed the greater freedom in draftsmanship and the richness of color that characterize the work of the North Italian masters. In his religious works Holbein integrated this wealth of detail and color with the dignity and severity of characterization appropriate to a religious subject. In the period 1523 to 1535 Holbein increased his reputation as a book illustrator by a series of 51 drawings portraying the medieval allegorical theme the Dance of Death and by a series of woodcuts for the German translation of the Bible by Martin Luther. Regardless of Holbein's prestige, however, as the austere attitudes of the Reformation permeated Swiss society, the patronage of artists diminished, and he was forced to go to England to gain new commissions. Arriving in 1526 with letters of introduction from Erasmus, now his friend and patron, Holbein was engaged to portray several of the great humanists of the period, including Sir Thomas More. Returning to Basel in 1528, Holbein was commissioned to make improvements in an earlier (1521-22) work, Justice, with which he had decorated the council chamber of the town hall. His additions to this series of frescoes reflect his continuing growth as an artist; the newer, less crowded compositions convey a still greater dramatic impact than his earlier scenes. Unfortunately, none of Holbein's many great frescoes executed here and in England and Germany have survived intact. Their beauty must be judged, instead, from his sketches and copies of the frescoes made by later artists. Holbein settled again in England in 1532 and began his career as a master portrait painter. His portrait of the statesman Thomas Cromwell brought the artist recognition at court, and by 1536 he was established as court painter to Henry VIII. His most significant works, the portraits of Henry VIII and his wife Jane Seymour, were destroyed by fire in 1698. Several of his portraits of other court figures, including most of Henry VIII's wives and his son Edward (later Edward VI), are still extant. The preliminary drawings for these paintings, in which Holbein combined chalk, silverpoint, pen, and other media, are among his most admired works. A group of 87 drawings is in the royal collection at Windsor Castle. Holbein died in London in 1543 during a plague epidemic. Holbein's reputation is based on his realistic portrayals of individuals and groups. His attention to every detail of flesh, hair, dress, and ornamentation and his ability to capture their exact texture neither detract from nor betray the basic character and dignity of his subjects. Holbein also contributed many important drawings for the great Renaissance art of Swiss glass painting. </text>
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<text>Holbein, Hans, the Younger</text>
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card_77498.xml
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<text>Hokusai, full name Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849), Japanese painter and wood engraver, born in Edo (now Tokyo). He is considered one of the outstanding figures of the Ukiyo-e, or “pictures of the floating world” (everyday life), school of printmaking. Hokusai entered the studio of his countryman Katsukawa Shunsho (1726-92) in 1775 and there learned the new, popular technique of woodcut printmaking. Between 1796 and 1802 he produced a vast number of book illustrations and color prints, perhaps as many as 30,000, that drew their inspiration from the traditions, legends, and lives of the Japanese people. Hokusai's most typical wood-block prints, silkscreens, and landscape paintings were done between 1830 and 1840. The free curved lines characteristic of his style gradually developed into a series of spirals that imparted the utmost freedom and grace to his work, as in Raiden, the Spirit of Thunder. In his late works Hokusai used large, broken strokes and a method of coloring that imparted a more somber mood to his work, as in his massive Group of Workmen Building a Boat. Among his best-known works are the 13-volume sketchbook Hokusai manga (begun 1814) and the series of block prints known as the Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji (circa 1826-33). Hokusai is generally more appreciated in the West than in Japan. His prints, as well as those by other Japanese printmakers, were imported to Paris in the mid-19th century. They were enthusiastically collected, especially by such impressionist artists as Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and Henri Toulouse-Lautrec, whose work was profoundly influenced by them. </text>
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<text>Hokusai</text>
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card_77219.xml
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<text>Hogarth, William (1697-1764), English painter and engraver, who satirized the follies of his age. Hogarth was born in London on November 10, 1697. On finishing his apprenticeship to a silversmith in 1718, he turned to engraving and first became known in 1726 by his illustrations for the novel Hudibras (1726), by Samuel Butler. Hogarth began painting about 1728, producing small group scenes such as A Musical Party (circa 1730, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge). By 1735 he had established a reputation as a painter of English manners and customs by two series of paintings, A Harlot's Progress (1731-32) and A Rake's Progress (1735, Sir John Soane's Museum, London). Through the sets of engravings he made from these paintings, Hogarth gained renown as a brilliant satirist of moral follies. Plagued by the artistic piracy to which his popular etchings were subject, he secured the passage of a copyright act, often called Hogarth's Act, in 1735. Two of Hogarth's most ambitious, although least characteristic, works are the murals The Good Samaritan and The Pool of Bethesda painted on the staircase of Saint Bartholomew's Hospital, London, in 1735-36. These murals were executed in the so-called grand manner, a highly ornamental, baroque style depicting mythological subjects; it was popular in the French and Italian art of the period. In 1743 Hogarth completed the six paintings entitled Marriage à la Mode (Tate Gallery, London); in 1745 the engravings based on these paintings were published. Hogarth's remarkably exuberant satire of marriage for money, his pungent details of upper-class life, and his mastery of complex scenes find perhaps their highest expression in this series, generally considered his finest work. To this period also belong many of Hogarth's portraits. Among his exceptional portraits are the famous Garrick as Richard III (1745, Earl of Feversham Collection) and The Shrimp Girl (c. 1759, National Gallery, London). In 1753 Hogarth wrote The Analysis of Beauty, a statement of his aesthetic principles. Four years later he was appointed sergeant painter to George II. During the last five years of his life, Hogarth was engaged in political feuds with the controversial British political reformer John Wilkes, whom he had satirized in an engraving. Wilkes retaliated with an attack on Hogarth's painting Sigismunda (1759). Hogarth's last engraving, The Bathos, intended as a farewell work, was published in 1764. He died in Chiswick on October 26, 1764. On his monument is an epitaph written by his friend the actor David Garrick. </text>
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<text>Hogarth, William</text>
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card_76972.xml
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<text> Hofmann, Hans (1880-1966), American painter and teacher, often called the dean of abstract expressionism. Born in Weissenberg, Bavaria, he studied painting in Munich and Paris, and was influenced by the Fauvist and cubist movements and by German expressionism. In 1915 Hofmann opened a school of modern art in Munich. He immigrated (1932) to the United States and opened (1933) a school in New York City. After 1940 his own style, in which cubist planes are heightened by brilliant Fauve color, as in Fantasia in Blue (1954, Whitney Museum, New York City), began to approach gestural painting. Over the years, many abstract expressionist painters attended his lectures and absorbed his principles of nonrepresentational art. In 1958 Hofmann gave up teaching to devote himself to painting, for which he eventually achieved international recognition. </text>
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<text>Hofmann, Hans</text>
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<text> Hockney, David (1937- ), English painter, known for his satirical paintings, his masterly prints and drawings, and his penetrating portraits of contemporary personalities. His works from the 1960s—such as his series featuring Los Angeles swimming pools and their denizens—are painted in a bright and deliberately naive style and their subject matter is drawn from popular culture. Hockney's wryness and wit together with his talent for strong composition and design led him, at the end of the 1960s, to a more naturalistic manner, particularly in his portraits. Although not fully realistic, these works—painted in his preferred style of flat acrylic paints and profuse finely drawn lines—provide sensitive, often heightened, representations of their sitters. Hockney's notable designs for operatic productions, for both the Glyndebourne Opera in England and for New York City's Metropolitan Opera, have met with critical and popular favor. </text>
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<text>Hockney, David</text>
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<text>Hobbema, Meindert (1638-1709), Dutch painter, born in Amsterdam. Hobbema is second only to his teacher, Jacob van Ruisdael, as a Dutch landscape painter. His favorite subject matter was the wooded countryside; his scenes include villages, farmhouses, tree-shaded streams, and, especially, water mills. Hobbema's large, luminous compositions feature a masterly draftsmanship and painstaking detail; his palette tends to be subdued. Much of his work was completed before 1668, when he married and, with the help of his wife, received an appointment as a municipal tax official. Hobbema's work did not achieve full recognition until after his death, when his superbly organized, tranquil scenes, such as his Avenue at Middleharnis (1689, National Gallery, London) and Water Mill with a Red Roof (circa 1670, Art Institute of Chicago), were appreciated as the final masterpieces of the Dutch landscape tradition in painting. </text>
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<text>Hobbema, Meindert</text>
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card_75641.xml
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<text>Hiroshige (1797-1858), Japanese painter and printmaker, known especially for his landscape prints. The last great figure of the Ukiyo-e, or popular, school of printmaking, he transmuted everyday landscapes into intimate, lyrical scenes that made him even more successful than his contemporary, Hokusai. Ando Hiroshige was born in Edo (now Tokyo) and at first, like his father, was a fire warden. The prints of Hokusai are said to have first kindled in him the desire to become an artist, and he entered the studio of Utagawa Toyohiro (1773-1828), a renowned painter, as an apprentice. In 1812 Hiroshige took his teacher's name (a sign of graduation), signing his work Utagawa Hiroshige. His career falls roughly into three periods. From 1811 to about 1830 he created prints of traditional subjects such as young women and actors. During the next 15 years he won fame as a landscape artist, reaching a peak of success and achievement in 1833 when his masterpiece, the print series Fifty-three Stations of the Tokaido (scenes on the highway connecting Edo and Kyoto), was published. He maintained this high level of craftmanship in other travel series, including Celebrated Places in Japan and Sixty-nine Stations on the Kiso Highway. The work he did during the third period, the last 15 years of his life, is sometimes of lesser quality, as he appears to have hurriedly met the demands of popularity. He died of cholera on October 12, 1858, in Edo. With Hokusai, Hiroshige dominated the popular art of Japan in the first half of the 19th century. His work was not as bold or innovative as that of the older master, but he captured, in a poetic, gentle way that all could understand, the ordinary person's experience of the Japanese landscape as well as the varied moods of memorable places at different times. His total output was immense, some 5400 prints in all. </text>
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<text>Hiroshige</text>
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card_75480.xml
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<text>Hine, Lewis Wickes (1874-1940), American photographer, who was one of the pioneers in the field of social documentary. He began his career in 1904 with photographs of immigrants arriving in New York City at Ellis Island; thereafter he photographed the squalid conditions of child laborers in mills, mines, and sweatshops. His photographs were among the first to be regularly featured in magazines, and their powerful effect led directly to the passing of the first child-labor laws. In 1932 Hine published Men at Work, a study of American workingmen, which contains notable photographs of the construction of the Empire State Building in New York City. </text>
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<text>Hine, Lewis Wickes</text>
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<text>Hilliard, Nicholas (1547-1619), English miniaturist, one of the leading artists of the Elizabethan period. Trained as a jeweler, he was appointed court miniaturist and goldsmith about 1570. His tiny portraits, often worn as personal adornment, are jewel-like in their delicacy of detail and brilliance of color. An avowed follower of Hans Holbein the Younger, Hilliard practiced a clear, shadowless style that lent great clarity to his works. He painted many leading court personalities, including Queen Elizabeth I, but his most sensitive were of unknowns, such as the elegant Young Man Leaning Against a Tree with Roses (circa 1588, Victoria and Albert Museum, London). </text>
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<text>Hilliard, Nicholas</text>
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card_74932.xml
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<text>Hill, David Octavius (1802-70), Scottish 19th-century photographer, who was one of the pioneers of portrait photography. Trained as a painter, he first used photography in 1843 as a means of securing likenesses to use as studies for oil portraits. In partnership with the Scottish chemist Robert Adamson (1821-48), he employed what was then the new calotype process. Hill increasingly turned away from painting to portrait photography. His photographs are notable for their simple composition, their straightforward lighting, their quiet dignity, and their ability to catch the distinctive qualities of the sitter. </text>
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<text>Hill, David Octavius</text>
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card_74579.xml
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<text>Hicks, Edward (1780-1849), American painter, who was the leading folk, or naive, artist of the first half of the 1800s. An untutored artisan, he was apprenticed to a coach maker at the age of 13 and later set up his own successful workshop for the painting of signs, clocks, furniture, and other utilitarian items. After becoming a Quaker preacher, he began to paint canvases illustrating scenes from the Scriptures, considering his art a useful, elevating craft rather than an artistic endeavor. His principal subject was the Peaceable Kingdom, illustrating Isaiah 11:6: “The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid, and the calf and the lion and the fatling together, and a little child shall lead them.” About 40 versions of this work are extant (Brooklyn Museum, Worcester Art Museum, among others). In them, placid groups of cows and sheep are shown together with lions, monkeys, and other beasts; children are often included, and the background always includes a scene of the Quaker colonist William Penn making a peace treaty with the Indians. </text>
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<text>Hicks, Edward</text>
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card_74246.xml
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<text>Herrera, Francisco de, the Elder (circa 1576-1656), Spanish early baroque painter, who is regarded as the founder of the naturalistic 17th-century school of Seville. He reacted against the detailed, formalized style in which he was trained and, in his mature works, cultivated a more rigorous, realistic manner. His works, principally religious paintings such as Saint Basil Dictating His Rule (1639, Louvre, Paris), are characterized by wide, rough brushstrokes, bravura treatment of color, and a vigorous approach to the subject matter. He also painted genre scenes, an innovation that, along with his new technical methods, strongly influenced later Spanish painters, in particular Diego Vel√°squez. </text>
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<text>Herrera, Francisco de, the Elder</text>
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card_74235.xml
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<text>Hepworth, (Dame Jocelyn) Barbara (1903-75), English sculptor, known for her abstract works in stone, metal, and wood. Born in Wakefield, Yorkshire, Hepworth studied at the Leeds School of Art (1920-21) and the Royal College of Art in London (1921-24). Important early influences on her work were the sculptures of Jean Arp and Constantin Brancusi, as well as the work of her friend Henry Moore. She first conceived of piercing a carving in 1931; thereafter, most of her work was pierced by voids, which were sometimes painted or fitted with a network of string or wire. Her works in every sculptural medium are notable for their superb finishes. With her husband, the abstract painter-sculptor Ben Nicholson, whom she married in 1931, she was instrumental in creating the English abstract art movement in the 1930s. Hepworth and Moore emerged after World War II as the foremost English sculptors of their age. In later years her sculptures grew increasingly monumental and slablike, as in the Dag Hammarskjöld Memorial (1964) at the United Nations headquarters in New York City. Hepworth was the recipient of numerous prizes, including the Grand Prix for plastic art at the Bienial of Modern Art in São Paulo, Brazil, in 1959. She was made a commander of the British Empire in 1958 and a dame in 1965. </text>
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<text>Hepworth, Barbara</text>
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card_73860.xml
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<text>Heemskerck, Maarten van (1498-1574), Dutch Mannerist painter, strongly influenced by the work of Michelangelo. In numerous mythological and religious works he produced crowded compositions with brilliant colors and muscular figures in tumultuous movement. Heemskerck's two sketchbooks (Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin), compiled in Rome between 1532 and 1535, are significant to art history; they provide views of many Roman monuments that have since disappeared or been altered beyond recognition, such as his drawings of Saint Peter's Basilica under construction in the midst of the remains of its Early Christian precursors. </text>
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<text>Heemskerck, Maarten van</text>
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card_73293.xml
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<text>Hassam, (Frederick) Childe (1859-1935), American painter and etcher, born in Dorchester, Massachusetts, and educated at the Boston Art School and the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Hassam was the chief American exponent of impressionism. His primary objective both in his paintings and in his etchings was to represent the effects of sunlight in city scenes and in landscapes of rural New England. His works include July 14 Rue Daunon (1910) and Church at Gloucester (1918), both in the Metropolitan Museum, New York City. Hassam is remembered primarily for the sparkling effects that he achieved. </text>
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<text>Hassam, Childe</text>
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card_73033.xml
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<text>Harunobu (1725-70), Japanese printmaker, who first introduced the polychrome (many-colored) woodblock print. Most of his prints, done in series such as Eight Parlor Views, portray scenes with young men and women, lovers, courtesans, or children. Noted for their grace of line and color combinations, his figures are slender and idealized, and his settings have an airy lightness. Harunobu's night scenes and his snow scenes display his exceptional talent for executing delicate natural effects. He produced some 600 prints and was popular for his many scenes of romantic love. </text>
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<text>Harunobu</text>
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card_72732.xml
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<text>Hamada Shoji (1894-1978), Japanese potter. Born in Tokyo, he studied there under the noted Japanese potter Kanijiro Kawai (1890-1963) and in 1920-23 worked in England with the British potter Bernard Leach. In 1925 Hamada established a kiln at Mashiko, a traditional Japanese pottery center. With Kawai, Hamada was in the forefront in establishing the mingei (folk handicraft) movement to promote the aesthetics and skills of traditional Japanese crafts. In 1955 he was designated Holder of an Important Intangible Cultural Property by the Japanese government. </text>
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<text>Hamada Shoji</text>
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card_71772.xml
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<text>Guisewite, Cathy (Lee) (1950- ), American cartoonist, creator of the cartoon strip “Cathy.” She was born in Dayton, Ohio, and educated at the University of Michigan. She started her career by writing advertising copy and in 1974 joined the W. B. Doner & Co. agency, of which she became the first female vice president in 1976. At this time she began to record her feelings in a diary, illustrated with her own stick-figure drawings. At her mother's urging, she sent samples to a comic strip syndicate, which accepted her work. Her cartoon strip “Cathy” was soon syndicated nationally (1977). The subject is a young, single, working woman caught between tradition and feminism. The supportive-antagonistic relationship between mother and daughter is a key element in the strips, as is the relationship between Cathy and her boyfriend. In addition to the newspaper version of “Cathy”, Guisewite contributes a monthly magazine strip and lectures widely. Her animated cartoon “Cathy”, based on the newspaper cartoon strip, won an Emmy Award (1987). Numerous book editions of the cartoons were published. </text>
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<text>Guisewite, Cathy</text>
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card_71275.xml
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<text>Guercino, real name Giovanni Francesco Barbieri (1591-1666), Italian painter of the Bolognese school, born in Cento, near Bologna. Influenced by Lodovico Carracci (1555-1619) in Bologna and the work of Titian in Venice, Guercino (Italian, “squint-eyed”) developed a baroque style marked by rich color, strong contrasts of light and dark, and large movement. Under the patronage of Pope Gregory XV (1554-1623), Guercino painted the Aurora fresco (1621, Villa Ludovisi, Rome) and other, more classical works, such as the Burial of St. Petronilla (1621, Capitoline Museum, Rome). After Gregory's death in 1623, Guercino lived in Cento. He moved to Bologna in 1642 to succeed Guido Reni as head of the Bolognese school. In attempting to imitate Reni's calm classicism, Guercino lost much force in his work but gained refinement and firmness as, for example, in St. Thomas Aquinas (1663, San Domenico, Bologna). Earlier works, such as Death of Dido (1630, Spada Gallery, Rome) and Christ at the Column (1657, Palazzo Chigi, Rome), show more fire. </text>
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<text>Guercino</text>
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card_71059.xml
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<text>Guardi, Francesco (1712-93), Italian painter, who was the most renowned rococo landscapist of Venice. Early in his career, Francesco and his two brothers produced numerous paintings of all types for churches, palaces, and private patrons in Venice and its environs. In the 1750s, however, Francesco began to paint vedutisti (city views) in the manner of his great predecessor Canaletto. He retained the scenic precision of Canaletto's architectural canvases, but introduced a liveliness of line and color and a heightened mood of fantasy. The results, as in the dazzling Piazza San Marco Decorated for the Feast of the Ascension (circa 1775, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisbon), were unsurpassed romantic evocations of Venice. With vivid, sketchy brushstrokes, Guardi peopled his cityscapes with grandiose processions and brightly costumed revelers, bathed in a shimmering, watery light presaging the effects achieved by the 19th-century impressionists. </text>
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<text>Guardi, Francesco</text>
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card_70817.xml
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<text>Gross, Chaim (1904-91), American sculptor, born in Austria. He studied art briefly in Budapest and Vienna and, after arriving in New York City in 1921, studied sculpture with the Polish-American sculptor Elie Nadelman and the American sculptor Robert Laurent (1890-1970). During the 1930s he worked for the Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration, and became an American citizen in 1934. Gross's first works were carvings of human figures—usually circus performers or mothers and children—chiefly in wood, sometimes in stone. Although the cylindrical wood block required a compact, stylized treatment, his figures show a vital sense of movement, as in Handlebar Riders (1935, Museum of Modern Art, New York City) and Girl on a Wheel (1940, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). From 1947 on, Judaic themes dominated his art. He wrote The Technique of Wood Carving in 1957, but thereafter turned increasingly to modeling figures in plaster for bronze sculpture. </text>
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<text>Gross, Chaim</text>
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card_70049.xml
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<text>Groening, Matt (1954- ), American cartoonist, creator of the comic strip “Life in Hell” and the cartoon family “The Simpsons.” He was born in Portland, Oregon, and educated at Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington. Moving to Los Angeles in 1977 with the intention of becoming a writer, Groening instead began to record his reactions to the city and to life in a comic strip, “Life in Hell.” The strip appeared for the first time in 1980 in the weekly Los Angeles Reader, of which he was then circulation manager. A year later, the comic went into syndication, appearing in 20 newspapers by 1983. Beginning with Love Is Hell(1984), several collections of his cartoon strips were published. In 1987 Groening was asked to supply animated segments to appear between skits of television's “The Tracy Ullman Show”; for these, Groening created the Simpsons, a cartoon family that became so popular that the Fox television network gave them their own half-hour show, which premiered in early 1990. “The Simpsons,” featuring the outspoken son Bart, was characterized as combining satire with consideration of serious issues. The show proved intensely popular, winning the 1990 Emmy Award for best animated series. </text>
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<text>Groening, Matt</text>
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card_69130.xml
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<text>Greenough, Horatio (1805-52), American sculptor, sometimes considered the country's first professional sculptor. He was born in Boston and educated at Harvard University. He executed busts of President John Quincy Adams, among others, and studied with the Danish neoclassical sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen in Italy, where he received a commission to sculpt figures for the American author James Fenimore Cooper. Greenough spent most of his life in Florence, executing portraits and groups in the neoclassical style. His huge, seated figure of President George Washington (1847, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.) was the first major commission given by the U.S. government to an American. The Rescue (1837-51), representing the conflict between the Indians and the white settlers in America, is on the portico of the Capitol in Washington. </text>
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<text>Greenough, Horatio</text>
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card_68548.xml
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<text>Greenaway, Kate (1846-1901), English watercolorist and illustrator, born in London, and educated at the Slade School. She showed her watercolor drawings at the Dudley Gallery, London, in 1868; then in 1873, Greenaway illustrated the children's book Little Folks and later, in 1877, began to draw for the Illustrated London News. In the following years she illustrated such commercially successful books as Mother Goose, Under the Window, and Little Ann. Greenaway's delicate, much-imitated style achieved a careful balance between figures and text. Her revival of the highwaisted Empire style of the early 19th century influenced children's clothes in her own day. </text>
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<text>Greenaway, Kate</text>
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card_68196.xml
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<text>Graves, Morris Cole (1910- ), American painter, whose mystical works were influenced by Oriental philosophy, especially Zen Buddhism. He adopted certain characteristic elements of Oriental subject matter—birds, pine trees, waves—as well as Oriental techniques involving the use of thin paper and ink drawing. His works, such as Blind Bird (1941, Museum of Modern Art, New York City), often contain delicate spidery lines indebted to Islamic calligraphy and to the work of the Orient-inspired painter Mark Tobey. His later paintings were increasingly abstract, and while they retained their delicacy, the Oriental influence was less obvious. </text>
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<text>Graves, Morris Cole</text>
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card_67638.xml
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<text>Gozzoli, Benozzo (1420-97), Italian painter of the early Renaissance, who was particularly adept at painting groups of people in processions or in dramatic action, against dreamlike landscapes and architectural backgrounds. Born Benozzo di Lese di Sandro in Florence, he was one of the important masters of the Florentine school. He studied with the noted painter Fra Angelico, whom he assisted in some of his work. His paintings are noted for their realistic detail, religious feeling, and clear, bright color. Most of his paintings are frescoes; they include a triple series from the life of Saint Francis of Assisi (1449; Church of San Fortunato, Montefalco); and Procession of the Magi (1460; Medici-Riccardi Palace, Florence), a continuous frieze that contains many portraits of eminent Florentines of the time. His 24 monumental frescoes depicting Old Testament scenes, including the Life of Noah and Visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon, (1469-85, Campo Santo, Pisa) were almost totally destroyed during World War II (1939-45). </text>
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<text>Gozzoli, Benozzo</text>
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card_67572.xml
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<text>Goyen, Jan Josephszoon Van (1596-1656), Dutch landscape painter, born in Leiden. He studied in his native city and in Haarlem with the Dutch artist Esaias van de Velde (1590?-1630). About 1631 Goyen settled at The Hague, where he became head of the painters' guild in 1640. Goyen developed a strongly individual manner of treating his subjects, which emphasized perspective and lighting, suffusing his landscapes in a melancholy gray-green atmosphere. His influence on Dutch painting, exercised principally through his pupils and their contemporaries, was considerable. More than a thousand of his paintings have been cataloged. Among his better-known paintings are View of Dordrecht (1650, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam) and View of The Hague (1651), painted at the request of its authorities and now in its municipal collection. </text>
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<text>Goyen, Jan Josephszoon Van</text>
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card_67133.xml
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<text>Goujon, Jean (circa 1510-68), French Renaissance architectural sculptor, who skillfully harmonized his works with the structures they decorated. He was probably born in Normandy. His work exhibits one of the most outstanding applications of the imported Italian Mannerist style. His mature mastery is exhibited in a marble relief depicting the deposition of Christ from the cross. It was created for the Church of Saint Germain l'Auxerrois in Paris in 1544-45, in collaboration with the architect Pierre Lescot (1510?-78). His masterpiece, the panels of the Nymphs on the Fountain of the Innocents in Paris (1548-49), exhibits the most exquisite development of the French adaptation of Mannerism. The elongated figures confined in tall vertical panels create a rhythmical linear pattern in the arrangement of their filmy draperies, achieving an expression of great delicacy, elegance, and sophistication. Goujon's decoration of the court facade of the Louvre was poorly restored in the 19th century, as were his four caryatids supporting the musician's gallery in the Louvre's Great Hall. </text>
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<text>Goujon, Jean</text>
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card_66764.xml
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<text>Gottlieb, Adolph (1903-74), American abstract expressionist painter. Under the influence of European surrealists, from 1941 to 1951 he painted a series of gridlike works that drew on fantasy and the unconscious for their imagery. The works in his Imaginary Landscape series (1951-56) are partial abstractions, divided by a horizon line and containing sunlike disks or ovoids. His later Burst series (after 1957) contains large exploding orbs of color. </text>
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<text>Gottlieb, Adolph</text>
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card_66362.xml
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<text>Gorky, Arshile (1904-48), Armenian-born American painter, whose work combined geometric abstraction and quasi-figurative surrealism. In 1920 Gorky (born Vosdanig Adoian) emigrated to the United States and after some years of study settled in New York City in 1925. His earliest work showed the influence of Pablo Picasso. After 1939, his works were influenced by the European surrealists and by the abstractions of Wassily Kandinsky and Joan Miró. By bringing these styles to America he exerted great influence on later American painting. In particular he had an effect on the developing abstract expressionist style of his contemporaries Mark Rothko and Willem de Kooning; he shared a studio with the latter in the late 1930s. Gorky's works, such as Agony (1947, Museum of Modern Art, New York City) and Betrothal II (1947, Whitney Museum, New York City), expressive of his subconscious fantasies, are characterized by calligraphic line and brilliant hues keyed to a dominant background color. </text>
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<text>Gorky, Arshile</text>
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card_66283.xml
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<text>Goltzius, Hendrik (1558-1617), Dutch artist and engraver. His early works are in the Mannerist style of northern Europe; after a trip to Rome in 1590, however, he adopted a more measured neoclassical style. Best known for his skillful portraits, he also produced engravings of the works of other artists, notably those of the German painter Albrecht Dürer and the Dutch painter Lucas van Leyden. After 1600, Goltzius experimented with landscapes, which, as the earliest Dutch examples of the form, paved the way for the great landscape school of the 17th century. </text>
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<text>Goltzius, Hendrik</text>
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card_65838.xml
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<text>Goldberg, Rube, full name Reuben Lucius Goldberg (1883-1970), American cartoonist and comic-strip artist, born in San Francisco. Goldberg began his career as a cartoonist in 1904; by 1921 his cartoons were syndicated and published in many American newspapers. He was best known for several cartoon series, including Boob McNutt and Lucifer Butts, A.K.; the latter series was extremely popular for its depiction of outlandish and intricate mechanical devices that were designed to accomplish absurdly simple purposes. </text>
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<text>Goldberg, Rube</text>
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card_65743.xml
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<text>Goes, Hugo Van der (1440?-82), one of the most eminent Flemish painters of his period. He was born in Goes (now in the Netherlands) and painted chiefly at Ghent, where he was first listed among members of the painters' guild in 1467. Van der Goes painted religious subjects, including several versions of the Holy Family, with the fervent attention to detail, delicate craftsmanship, and deep religious sentiment characteristic of Flemish painting at its peak of development. He also made designs for stained glass. a large tryptich, the Portinari Altarpiece (circa 1476), was commissioned by a member of the Portinari family of Florence who was serving in Bruges as the agent of the Medicis. Van der Goes gave it to the Florentine hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in 1476. the work, greatly admired by the Italian masters of the Renaissance, is now in the Uffizi, Florence. Other works by van der Goes include the Virgin and Child with St. Anne (Royal Museum, Brussels) and Death of the Virgin(c. 1480, Groeninge Museum, Bruges). </text>
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<text>Goes, Hugo Van der</text>
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<text>Glackens, William James (1870-1938), American painter, born in Philadelphia, and educated at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Starting his career as a newspaper and magazine illustrator, Glackens became a realistic painter of the group called The Eight. His dark-hued works marked a turning away from lofty academic subjects to scenes of everyday life. Later, as a result of his travels in France, Glackens's works became lighter, influenced by the impressionists, especially the French painter and sculptor Pierre Auguste Renoir. Glackens's works include Luxembourg Gardens (1904, Corcoran Gallery, Washington, D.C.), Washington Square (1914, Museum of Modern Art, New York City), and Promenade (1926, Detroit Institute of Arts). </text>
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<text>Glackens, William James</text>
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card_64522.xml
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<text>Giulio Romano (circa 1499-1546), Italian painter and architect in the mannerist style. He was born Giulio Pippi in Rome and became the chief pupil of the Italian painter Raphael, whom he assisted in many of the latter's finest works. At Raphael's death he completed the frescoes Battle of Constantine and Apparition of the Cross in the Vatican Palace, Rome. He inherited a portion of Raphael's wealth, including his works of art, and succeeded him as head of the Roman school. About 1524, Giulio accepted the invitation of Federigo Gonzaga (1500?-40), ruler of Mantua and patron of the arts, to carry out a series of architectural and pictorial works. The drainage of the marshes surrounding the city and its system of protection from the inundations of the Po and Mincio rivers attest to Giulio's skill as an engineer; his genius as an architect found scope in the planning and construction of the Palazzo del Te, the cathedral, the streets, and a ducal palace. Among his works of this period are the frescoes Psyche, Icarus, and Titans, in the Te palace. In Bologna, he designed the facade of the Church of San Petronio. Among the best of his works are Martyrdom of Saint Stephen (San Stefano, Genoa) and Mary and Jesus (Louvre, Paris). </text>
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<text>Giulio Romano</text>
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<text>Gislebertus (flourished 12th century), French Romanesque sculptor, whose decoration (circa 1125-35) of the Cathedral of Saint Lazare at Autun, France—consisting of numerous doorways, tympanums, and capitals—represents some of the most original work of the period. His sculpture is unusually expressive and imaginative for its time, from the terrifying Last Judgment (west tympanum), with its strikingly elongated figures, to the Eve (north portal), the first large-scale nude in European art since antiquity and a model of sinuous grace. His influence can be traced to other French church sculpture, and his techniques helped pave the way for the Gothic style. </text>
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<text>Gislebertus</text>
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card_64119.xml
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<text>Girtin, Thomas (1775-1802), English watercolorist, whose technical and artistic innovations gave birth to the distinctive English romantic manner in watercolor. His early works follow the 18th-century style of line drawings tinted with monochromatic washes. His mature works, however, particularly White House at Chelsea (1800, Tate Gallery, London), are freer and more intense, using strong colors unencumbered by linear outlines. They convey a unique sense of the sweep and scale of the English countryside. Their naturalistic style and sensitivity to mood prepared the way for the full-scale romanticism of later artists such as J. M. W. Turner and Richard Bonington. </text>
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<text>Girtin, Thomas</text>
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card_63900.xml
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<text>Giovanni di Paolo (circa 1403-c. 1482), one of the most important painters of the 15th-century Sienese school. His early works show the influence of earlier Sienese masters, but his later style grew steadily more individualized, characterized by cold, harsh colors and elongated forms. Many of his works have an unusual dreamlike atmosphere, such as the surrealistic Miracle of St. Nicholas of Tolentino (circa 1455, Philadelphia Museum of Art), while his last works—particularly Last Judgment, Heaven, and Hell (c. 1465) and Assumption (1475), both at Pinacoteca, Siena—are grotesque treatments of their lofty subjects. Giovanni's reputation declined after his death but was revived in the 20th century. </text>
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<text>Giovanni di Paolo</text>
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card_63528.xml
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<text> Giotto (circa 1267-1337), the most important Italian painter of the 14th century, whose conception of the human figure in broad, rounded terms—rather than in the flat, two-dimensional terms of Gothic and Byzantine styles—indicated a concern for naturalism that was a milestone in the development of Western art. He was born Giotto di Bondone in Colle di Vespignano, near Florence. Details of his early life are scarce, but it appears that he probably served an apprenticeship in Florence before embarking on a career that took him to Rome, Padua, Arezzo, Rimini, Assisi, and Naples. Giotto's entire output consists of religious works, primarily altarpieces and church frescoes. Few remain in good condition, and most have disappeared entirely or have been almost wholly repainted. Others cannot be securely attributed to him and are more likely to be the work of followers or apprentices. His earliest attributable work is the large fresco cycle illustrating the lives of the Virgin and Christ in the Scrovegni (Arena) Chapel in Padua, painte d between 1305 and 1306. Giotto's scenes break with rigid medieval stylization to present human figures in rounded sculptural forms that appear to have been based on living models rather than on idealized archetypes. He rejected the bright jewel-like colors and long elegant lines of the Byzantine style in favor of a quieter, more realistic presentation. His emphasis is on the human and the real rather than on the divine and the ideal—a revolutionary development in an age dominated by religion. His settings (here as in all of his works) consist of shallow, boxlike architectural backdrops. These are somewhat more open than the flat planes of Byzantine and Gothic paintings but fall short of the full perspective of the Renaissance. The Ognissanti Madonna (circa 1310, Uffizi, Florence) is roughly contemporary with the Arena frescoes and is Giotto's only attributable panel painting. It shows the influence of the earlier Florentine painter Giovanni Cimabue in composition and style, but is unique in its humanization of the Madonna's face. Two fresco cycles in the Church of Santa Croce, Florence—depicting the life of St. Francis and the lives of St. John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist—are thought to be later works. While they are extensively restored, they represent the most advanced stage of Giotto's style, showing human figures grouped in free, active poses. Giotto was ahead of his time. Most of his followers painted in a less significant, more overtly decorative style. It remained for Masaccio, a century later, to expand upon his monumental style. Giotto's example was crucial to the development of later Florentine painting, and his preoccupation with the realities of the human figure and the visible world became the dominant concerns of the Florentine Renaissance. He died in Florence, in 1337. </text>
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<text>Giotto</text>
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card_63293.xml
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<text>Giorgione (circa 1478-1510), Italian painter, who founded the Venetian school of painting and changed the course of European art through his innovations in the portrayal of mood. Details of Giorgione's life and career are sparse and unreliable, but it appears that he was born in Castelfranco and that he studied under the Venetian painter Giovanni Bellini. His original name was probably Giorgio Barbarelli. Only three oil paintings can be positively attributed to him—the Castelfranco Altarpiece (1504, San Liberale, Castelfranco), Three Philosophers (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna), and Tempest (Accademia, Venice). Other works are attributed to him on the basis of indirect evidence. Most of Giorgione's paintings consist of a figure or group of figures integrated in a broad surrounding landscape. Unlike earlier pictures in this mode, these works exhibit a new and highly lyrical use of light: The lighting is soft and hazy and is used to create mood rather than to define sharply the objects in the scene. He deliberately refused to make preparatory drawings, preferring instead to compose directly on the canvas; he felt that this led to a more atmospheric rendering and to more striking color effects. Giorgione's innovations in subject matter were especially important in two areas: the landscape and the female nude. Prior to Giorgione, landscape scenes were taken from biblical, classical, or allegorical stories, but the Tempest appears to have no such source and stands on its own as a purely imaginative work. It gave birth to a revolution against the storytelling element in landscape painting and paved the way for later masters such as the French painter Claude Lorrain and the Dutch artist Rembrandt. Sleeping Venus (circa 1510, Gemäldegalerie, Dresden, Germany), attributed to Giorgione, pictures a reclining nude and is one of the first modern works of art in which the female figure is the principal and only subject of the picture. It inaugurated the nude as one of the great themes of European art and led directly to the work of artists such as the Venetian painter Titian and the Flemish master Peter Paul Rubens. Giorgione died of the plague, a few years after his 30th birthday, in Venice in 1510. </text>
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<text>Giorgione</text>
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card_63094.xml
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<text>Giordano, Luca (1632-1705), Italian baroque painter, born in Naples. He was known as Fa Presto (“Hurry Up”) because of the speed with which he worked. He studied with the Spanish painter Jusepe de Ribera and the Italian painter and architect Pietro da Cortona, and his style was derived from the styles of Cortona and Paolo Veronese. Giordano lived and worked mostly in Naples; he also executed commissions in Florence, and from 1692 until after 1700 resided and worked in Madrid under the patronage of King Charles II of Spain. Giordano painted numerous pictures, perhaps as many as 5000. His work is characterized by harmonious color, charm, and facile invention. Among his frescoes are those in the cupola of the Corsini Chapel, Florence; Christ Expelling the Traders from the Temple (Church of San Filippo da Girolami, Naples); and Battle of Saint-Quentin and Taking of Montmorency (Escorial, Madrid). His easel paintings include Venus and Mars (Louvre, Paris) and Birth of John the Baptist (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City). </text>
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<text>Giordano, Luca</text>
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card_62720.xml
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<text>Gillray, James (1757-1815), English caricaturist, one of the fathers of political cartooning. His satirical caricatures followed in the tradition of William Hogarth but were more overtly political than Hogarth's generalized social commentary. His cartoons—which lampooned the court, the government, and in particular the royal family—were biting, witty, and often outrageous. Characterized by pitiless exaggeration of the personalities and physical features of their subjects, they set the style for later English political cartooning. </text>
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<text>Gillray, James</text>
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card_62513.xml
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<text>Gill, (Arthur) Eric Rowton (1882-1940), British sculptor, type designer, engraver, and author. Gill's stone carvings were first exhibited in London in 1911. Two years later he joined the Roman Catholic church and was commissioned to carve the stations of the cross in London's Westminster Cathedral, a task he completed in 1918. His relief Christ Driving the Money-Changers Out of the Temple was executed as a war memorial at the University of Leeds in 1922-23. His interest in lettering led him to design new typefaces for book printing; outstanding examples are the faces known as Perpetua (1925) and Gill Sans-serif (1927). </text>
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<text>Gill, Eric Rowton</text>
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card_62349.xml
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<text>Gibson, Charles Dana (1867-1944), American illustrator, born in Roxbury, Massachusetts. Gibson's pen-and-ink drawings for the humor magazine Life and for Scribner's, Century, and Harper's made him one of the most popular U.S. illustrators in the early 20th century. His subject matter was generally the life, particularly that of women, of the wealthy classes of American society. His pictorial conception of the ideal American female, a tall, slim-waisted young woman characterized by a calm and stately bearing, became world famous as the “Gibson girl.” </text>
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<text>Gibson, Charles Dana</text>
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card_61959.xml
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<text>Gibbons, Grinling (1648-1720), English sculptor, best known for his superbly decorative carved woodwork in palaces, country houses, churches, and colleges. His mantels, chimneypieces, wall panels, and screens contain most of the common motifs of the time—fruit and flowers, small animals, cherubs' heads—in complex and finely carved groupings. Examples of Gibbons's work are found at Windsor Castle, Hampton Court, Trinity College (Oxford), and country mansions such as Petworth and Belton. He also produced statuary in marble and bronze, but these stiffly classical pieces fell short of the exuberant richness of his woodcarving, which set a pattern for English baroque interior decoration. </text>
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<text>Gibbons, Grinling</text>
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card_61758.xml
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<text>Giambologna (1529-1608), Flemish-Italian sculptor, one of the most influential artists of late 16th-century Mannerism. Originally named Jean Bologne, he was born in Douai, Flanders. He spent two years in Rome (circa 1554-55), where he was strongly influenced by Michelangelo's sculpture. Also called Giovanni da Bologna, Giambologna remained in Italy for the rest of his life, principally in Florence. Pope Pius IV gave Giambologna his first major commission, for a colossal bronze Fountain of Neptune (1566) in Bologna. In his later work, he strove for a strong sense of movement, often based on spirals or twisting lines. A series of bronze statues of Mercury culminated in the renowned “flying” Mercury (1580, Bargello, Florence), outstanding for the airy elegance of its pose: the nude figure stands poised on the toes of the left foot, with the right arm raised high in a pointing gesture. Rape of the Sabine Woman (1583, Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence), considered his masterpiece, is a complex three-figure work in marble, a compact yet light group spiraling upward from a crouching to a standing to an airborne figure. Giambologna was the most successful sculptor of his age, creating an international Mannerist style that directly influenced succeeding baroque sculpture, particularly the work of Gian Lorenzo Bernini. </text>
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<text>Giambologna</text>
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card_61609.xml
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<text>Giacometti, Alberto (1901-66), Swiss sculptor and painter, born in Stampa. After a period of study in Geneva and Rome, Giacometti settled in Paris in 1922. He established himself as one of the leading surrealist sculptors of the 1930s with work that showed a great deal of wit and imagination. Perhaps the most outstanding of his surrealist pieces is The Palace at 4 AM (1932-33, Museum of Modern Art, New York City), an architectonic skeleton holding suspended figures and objects that expresses the subjectivity and the fragility of the human sense of time and space. In 1948 Giacometti exhibited his works after a 12-year lapse, during which he experimented in sculpture and painting. From his experiments Giacometti evolved a distinctive style of highly expressive, attenuated figures. Infused with a pervasive melancholy, both his paintings and sculptures convey a sense of tenuous existence, as though the figures were constantly threatened with obliteration by the surrounding space. In such paintings as The Artist's Mother (1950, Museum of Modern Art), the seated figure seems about to disappear in the web of lines and strokes that delineates the sitting room and its faintly ominous furnishings. </text>
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<text>Giacometti, Alberto</text>
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card_61251.xml
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<text>Ghirlandaio, assumed name taken by a family of Florentine painters, whose real name was Bigordi. The appellation ghirlandaio (“garland maker”) was first applied to Tommaso Bigordi, a 15th-century goldsmith and silversmith noted for his skill in fashioning wreaths of silver for ladies' headdresses. The most important members of the family included the following. Domenico di Tommaso Bigordi Ghirlandaio(1449-94), son of Tommaso and the outstanding member of the family, born in Florence. He studied painting and mosaic with the noted Florentine painter Alesso Baldovinetti, and his style was also influenced by the Italian Renaissance artists Giotto, Masaccio, Andrea del Castagno, and Andrea del Verrocchio. Except for a period spent in Rome by order of Pope Sixtus IV, Domenico Ghirlandaio lived in Florence, where he became one of the greatest masters of the Florentine school. He brought to its height in the 15th century the realism that is one of the dominating characteristics of that school. Domenico painted religious frescoes and easel pictures but often introduced recognizable Florentine scenery and portraits of contemporary personages attired in the costumes of the time. He is particularly distinguished for his frescoes, among which are The Calling of Saints Peter and Andrew (1481-82, Sistine Chapel, Vatican City); his masterpiece, scenes from the life of Saint Francis (1485, Church of Santa Trinità, Florence); and Legend of the Virgin and Life of John the Baptist (1490, choir of the Church of Santa Maria Novella, Florence). He also painted altarpieces, including Adoration of the Shepherds (1485, Santa Trinità) and Virgin in Glory (circa 1490, Pinakothek, Munich); and among his easel pictures, all painted in tempera, are Adoration of the Kings (1487, Uffizi Gallery, Florence) and Old Man with His Grandson (1480, Louvre, Paris). Among Domenico Ghirlandaio's pupils was the Italian Renaissance genius Michelangelo. Ridolfo Ghirlandaio(1483-1561), son of Domenico. He studied with the Florentine painter Piero di Cosimo. Ridolfo's style was modeled successively after that of Leonardo da Vinci and of Raphael. </text>
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<text>Ghirlandaio</text>
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card_61125.xml
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<text> Ghiberti, Lorenzo (1378-1455), one of the most important early Renaissance sculptors of Florence; his work and writings formed the basis for much of the style and aims of the later High Renaissance. Originally named Lorenzo di Bartolo, Ghiberti was born in Florence and trained as a goldsmith; in his sculpture he showed lyrical grace and technical perfection as well as a concern for classical clarity of weight and volume. In 1403, competing against such formidable rivals as Filippo Brunelleschi and Jacopo della Quercia, Ghiberti won his first major commission, the making of the second pair of bronze doors for the baptistery of the cathedral of Florence. (The first pair had been made in the early 14th century by Andrea Pisano.) He spent more than 20 years completing them, aided by his students, who included Donatello and Paolo Uccello. Each door contains 14 quatrefoil-framed scenes from the lives of Christ, the Evangelists, and the church fathers. Installed in 1424, the doors were highly praised. Although the reliefs were mainly Gothic in style, the later ones show an increased interest in the antique and in deep pictorial space, with the figures assuming more importance than the drapery. This transition toward Renaissance style is also evident in three bronze statues of saints he made for Or San Michele (1416-24). Ghiberti developed these ideas intensively after 1425. His reliefs for the cathedral at Siena (1417-27) and his greatest work, the third set of bronze doors for the baptistery at Florence (completed in 1452), show a development toward naturalistic movement, volume, and perspective and a greater idealization of subject. These doors, each portraying five scenes from the Old Testament, were called the “Gates of Paradise” by Michelangelo. Ghiberti was actively involved in the dissemination of humanist ideas. In the Commentarii (1447-48) he gave his autobiography and expounded his views on art. He died in Florence on December 1, 1455. </text>
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<text>Ghiberti, Lorenzo</text>
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card_60921.xml
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<text>Gentileschi, surname of two Italian baroque painters, who were father and daughter. Orazio Gentileschi(1562?-1639), originally named Orazio Lomi, born in Pisa. Gentileschi worked in Rome, where he executed murals for a number of palaces; in Genoa; and after 1626 in England, where King Charles I and George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, were his patrons. Among Gentileschi's paintings, noted for their vivid color but considered weak in design, are David After the Death of Goliath (Palazzo Doria, Genoa), Saints Cecilia and Valerian (Palazzo Borghese, Rome), Joseph and Potiphar's Wife (Hampton Court, England), and Flight into Egypt (Louvre, Paris). Artemisia Gentileschi (circa 1593-1651), born in Rome. She studied with her father and with the celebrated painter of the school of Bologna, Guido Reni. About 1638 she visited England, where she won renown as a portrait painter. Gentileschi was one of the few artists of her time to experiment with paintings of night scenes, of which her Lot and His Daughters (Galleria Borghese, Rome) is a prime example. Among her other paintings, noted for their skillful use of chiaroscuro (light and dark contrasts), are a self-portrait (Hampton Court), Mary Magdalen (Pitti Gallery, Florence), and Christ Among the Doctors (New York Historical Society, New York City). </text>
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<text>Gentileschi</text>
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card_60233.xml
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<text>Gentile da Fabriano (circa 1370-1427), Italian painter in the International Gothic style. Originally named Gentile di Niccolò di Giovanni di Massio, he was born in Fabriano, Ancona Province. Much of his work has been lost, but what remains shows the influence of the French and Flemish version of the International Gothic style then current in Lombardy. His work is characterized by sparkling color and graceful figures with animated and smiling faces. Gentile was active in a number of Italian cities. In Venice in 1411 he executed frescoes for the Ducal Palace and greatly influenced Pisanello and the early Venetian school. In Florence in 1423 he painted his masterpiece, Adoration of the Magi (Uffizi), and in Rome in 1427 he painted frescoes illustrating the life of Saint John the Baptist (Saint John Lateran) and the Holy Family (Santa Maria Maggiore). Other important paintings are Madonna in Glory (Brera, Milan), Presentation in the Temple (Louvre, Paris), and Madonna with Saints (Berlin Museum). </text>
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<text>Gentile da Fabriano</text>
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card_60060.xml
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<text>Gavarni, real name Guillaume Sulpice Chevalier (1804-66), French caricaturist and illustrator, born in Paris and largely self-taught as an artist. He began his career as an engraver and after 1830 was a fashion illustrator. Subsequently he became a caricaturist, specializing in satiric studies of Parisian life, which he contributed to a number of Parisian periodicals, including the magazine Charivari. Among his better-known works are the series Les fourberies de femme en matière de sentiment (Treachery of Women in Matters of Sentiment) and Les lorettes (The Prostitutes). Gavarni lived in London from 1847 to 1851; deeply moved by the economic misery of the poorer classes there, he thenceforth used his satiric approach to life to stress social problems. Gavarni was also a watercolorist and a noted illustrator of books. In all, Gavarni executed about 8000 drawings, lithographs, and watercolors. </text>
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<text>Gavarni</text>
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card_59759.xml
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<text>Gainsborough, Thomas (1727-88), English painter, who is considered one of the great masters of portraiture and landscape. Life Gainsborough was born in Sudbury, Suffolk, on May 14, 1727. He showed artistic ability at an early age, and when he was 15 years old he studied drawing and etching in London with the French engraver Hubert Gravelot (1699-1773). Later he studied painting with Francis Hayman (1708-76), a painter of historical events. Through Gravelot, who had been a pupil of the great French painter Jean Antoine Watteau, Gainsborough came under Watteau's influence. Later he was also influenced by the painters of the Dutch school and by the Flemish painter Sir Anthony van Dyck. From 1745 to 1760 Gainsborough lived and worked in Ipswich. From 1760 to 1774 he lived in Bath, a fashionable health resort, where he painted numerous portraits and landscapes. In 1768 he was elected one of the original members of the Royal Academy; and in 1774 he painted, by royal invitation, portraits of King George III and the queen consort, Charlotte Sophia (1744-1818). Gainsborough settled in London the same year. He was the favorite painter of the British aristocracy, becoming wealthy through commissions for portraits. Gainsborough died in London on August 2, 1788. WorkGainsborough executed more than 500 paintings, of which more than 200 are portraits. His portraits are characterized by the noble and refined grace of the figures, by poetic charm, and by cool and fresh colors, chiefly greens and blues, thinly applied. Among his world-famous portraits are Orpin, the Parish Clerk (Tate Gallery, London); The Baillie Family (1784) and Mrs. Siddons (1785), both in the National Gallery, London; Perdita Robinson (1781, Wallace Collection, London); The Hon. Francis Duncombe (circa 1777, Frick Collection, New York City); Mrs. Tenant (1786-87, Metropolitan Museum, New York City); and many in private collections, including The Blue Boy (circa 1779, Huntington Collection, San Marino, California). The effect of poetic melancholy induced by faint lighting characterizes Gainsborough's paintings. He was obviously influenced by Dutch 17th-century landscape painting. Forest scenes, or rough and broken country, are the usual subjects of his landscapes, most notably Cornard Wood (1748) and The Watering Place (1775), both in the National Gallery. Gainsborough also executed many memorable drawings and etchings. </text>
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<text>Gainsborough, Thomas</text>
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card_59218.xml
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<text>Gaddi, Taddeo (circa 1300-c. 1366), Florentine painter and architect, the most important of the pupils of the Florentine painter Giotto, assisting his master for 24 years, as well as painting independently. After Giotto's death Gaddi became the leading painter of the Florentine school for several decades. Taddeo dutifully followed Giotto's principles in his work, setting his naturalistic figures against somber landscapes. He also experimented with the depiction of individualized human features and with lighting effects, both in his altarpieces and in his numerous frescoes. Among Taddeo's frescoes are the series illustrating the life of the Virgin and the ceiling paintings Eight Virtues (1338, both Baroncelli Chapel, Santa Croce, Florence); Last Supper and Tree of Life (both c. 1340, refectory of Santa Croce); and frescoes in the Church of San Francesco, Pisa. Among his altarpieces are Virgin in Glory (1355, Uffizi, Florence), and Virgin and Child with Four Saints (Metropolitan Museum, New York City). His architectural career, according to the Italian biographer Giorgio Vasari, included the building of the Ponte Vecchio over the Arno River in Florence, and the continuation of work on Giotto's campanile for Florence Cathedral. His son Agnolo Gaddi (1345?-96) studied under him and later worked in Florence, Rome, and Prato. </text>
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<text>Gaddi, Taddeo</text>
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card_58946.xml
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<text> Gabo, Naum (1890-1977), Russian-American sculptor, one of the leading practitioners of 20th-century constructivism. Born in Briansk and originally named Naum Pevsner, he changed his name to avoid confusion with his brother, Antoine Pevsner, also an artist. He studied (1910-14) medicine and engineering in Munich, but in 1914 took up sculpture, producing cubist-inspired heads and busts using cutout sheets of metal, cardboard, or celluloid. In Moscow from 1917 to 1922, Gabo helped found the constructivist movement, which advocated the construction of sculpture from industrial materials rather than from traditional carving in stone or casting in bronze. In 1920 he and his brother issued their Realist Manifesto, calling for new art forms based on space and time; in keeping with this theory, Gabo executed several works with moving parts, called kinetic sculpture. He lived in Germany from 1922 to 1932, where he executed works characterized by a monumental architectural quality, as in the glass, metal, and plastic Column (1923, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). During World War II, in London, Gabo continued to produce such characteristic works as Linear Construction, Variation (1943, Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C.), in which an oval space is outlined in clear plastic forms that, in turn, are delicately webbed with intersecting planes of nylon thread. In 1946 he settled in the U.S. One of Gabo's most notable works is a large-scale, 26-m (85-ft) tree-shaped monument (1957) commissioned for the rebuilt Bijenkorf (Beehive) Department Store in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, to commemorate those who perished in 1940 in the Nazi destruction of Rotterdam. His last major work (1976) was a fountain for St. Thomas's Hospital, London. </text>
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<text>Gabo, Naum</text>
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<text>Fyt, Jan (1611-61), Flemish painter and etcher, who was especially skilled at depicting animals and still life. He was born in Antwerp (now in Belgium) and studied principally with Frans Synders, the greatest of Flemish animal and still-life painters. Fyt traveled and worked for ten years in France, Holland, and Italy before returning to Antwerp in 1643. His work is characterized by extreme realism in the depiction of the textures of fur and plumage, as well as by harmonious color and, frequently, bold and dramatic action. His favorite subjects included dogs, as for example, Wolves Attacked by Dogs (1652, National Gallery, Oslo), and dead game. </text>
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<text>Fuseli, Henry (1741-1825), Swiss-English painter, whose imaginative paintings, emphasizing melodrama, fantasy, and horror, exerted an important influence on the budding romantic movement in England and on the Continent. Fuseli, originally named Johann Heinrich Füssli, was born in Zurich. Encouraged by the English painter Sir Joshua Reynolds, he spent a decade (1768-78) in Italy studying Michelangelo's work and then settled in England in 1779. Fuseli became well known for his expressive and often melodramatic historical paintings, which led to his election to the Royal Academy in 1799 and his designation as keeper of the academy in 1804. Fuseli's enduring fame, however, rests on his imaginative fantasy paintings, which abound with apparitions, extravagant poses, and lurid nocturnal effects. One of the best known is The Nightmare (1781, Kunsthaus, Zürich), picturing a young woman in the throes of a nightmare, attended by horrific apparitions of a monkey and a glowing horse's head. Fuseli exerted a strong influence on the work of later romantics, especially the English poet and painter William Blake. </text>
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<text>Fuseli, Henry</text>
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<text>Friedrich, Caspar David (1774-1840), outstanding 19th-century German romantic painter, whose awesome landscapes and seascapes are not only meticulous observations of nature but are also allegories. Friedrich was born on September 5, 1774, in Greifswald and was largely self-taught. In 1798 he settled in Dresden, where he became a member of an artistic and literary circle imbued with the ideals of the romantic movement. His early drawings—precisely outlined in pencil or sepia—explored motifs recurrent throughout his work: rocky beaches, flat, barren plains, infinite mountain ranges, and trees reaching toward the sky. Later, his work began to reflect more of his emotional response to natural scenery. He began to paint in oils in 1807; one of his first canvases, The Cross in the Mountains (circa 1807, Gemäldegalerie, Dresden), is representative of his mature style. A bold break from traditional religious painting, this work is almost pure landscape; the figure of the crucified Christ, seen from behind and silhouetted against a mountain sunset, is almost lost in the natural setting. According to Friedrich's own writings, all the elements in the composition have symbolic meanings. The mountains are allegories of faith; the rays of the setting sun symbolize the end of the pre-Christian world; and the fir trees stand for hope. Friedrich's cold, acid colors, clear lighting, and his sharp contours heighten the feeling of melancholy, isolation, and human powerlessness against the ominous forces of nature expressed in his paintings. As a faculty member of the Dresden Academy, Friedrich influenced later German romantic painters. Although his reputation declined after his death—on May 7, 1840, in Dresden—20th-century viewers are fascinated by his imagery.</text>
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<text>Friedrich, Caspar David</text>
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<text> French, Daniel Chester (1850-1931), one of the best-known American sculptors of his time. Born in Exeter, New Hampshire, he studied sculpture in New York City and Florence, Italy. His bronze statues of American historical and allegorical figures are characterized by grace, poetic feeling, dignified emotion, and masterful technique. He established his reputation with his first major work, the Minute Man (1875, Concord, Massachusetts), commemorating the American Revolution. Other works include the famous seated Lincoln (1919, Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C.), the equestrian statues General Grant (1899, Philadelphia) and General Washington (1900, Paris), the Four Continents (1907, Customs House, New York City), and portrait busts. </text>
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<text>French, Daniel Chester</text>
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<text>Frankenthaler, Helen (1928- ), American abstract expressionist painter, who has pioneered new methods of using color. Born in New York City, she studied art at Bennington College. Her early work shows a variety of influences, but after 1951, under the influence of Jackson Pollock, she developed her own unique style. Inspired by Pollock's method of dripping paint onto canvas, Frankenthaler used thinned-down paint to soak or stain unprimed canvas, creating diaphanous silky pools of color in such works as the delicately pink and blue Mountains and Sea (1952, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). This and some later works, although completely abstract, contain strong evocations of landscape. In the 1960s Frankenthaler began leaving large areas of blank canvas in many of her works, in order—in her words—to allow the pictures to “breathe.” In 1962 she first used acrylic paints, which were both brighter and less dense than oils, and the coloration of her canvases became correspondingly stronger. Her work has been an important influence on the American color-field artists Morris Louis and Kenneth Noland. </text>
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<text>Frankenthaler, Helen</text>
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<text>Francesco (Maurizio) Di Giorgio Martini (1439-c. 1501), Italian artist, whose versatile output—paintings, sculpture, architecture, and military fortifications—made him a dominant figure of the late 15th-century north Italian school. His most important work (aside from unsubstantiated contributions to the Ducal Palace of Urbino) is the octagonal-domed Church of Santa Maria del Calcinaio (1485), near Cortona, one of the most perfect of 15th-century churches; its proportions are strongly indebted to the dome of Florence Cathedral, by the earlier Florentine master Filippo Brunelleschi. Later artists were influenced by Francesco's paintings and sculptures as well as by his Treatise on Civil and Military Architecture (1492). </text>
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<text>Francesco Di Giorgio Martini</text>
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<text>Fouquet, Jean (circa 1416-80), the most important French painter of the 15th century. Born in Tours, he studied art there and probably also in Paris and in Italy. He was court painter to Charles VII and later to Louis XI. Fouquet (or Foucquet) is considered the founder of the French school of painting. His style was based on that of the Flemish painters Hubert van Eyck (circa 1370-1426) and Jan van Eyck and on the style of Florentine painters and sculptors of the Renaissance, especially that of Fra Angelico. Fouquet painted portraits and religious pictures; he also executed miniatures and embellishments for illuminated manuscripts. His portraits are characterized by clear and glowing color, vigorous drawing, vivid characterization, and a sense of humor. His miniatures are noted for precise detail and exquisite technique. Among the few paintings definitely ascribed to him are a portrait of Charles VII, king of France (Louvre, Paris); a portrait of a man (1456, Liechtenstein Gallery); and the wings of the Melun Diptych (c. 1450). The wing in the Fine Arts Museum, Antwerp, shows a Madonna and Child; the wing in the Berlin Dahlem Museum depicts Étienne Chevalier (1410-74) with St. Stephen. The portrait Man with a Glass of Wine (Louvre) is also generally ascribed to him. Fouquet is especially noted for his illuminations for three Books of Hours. </text>
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<text>Fouquet, Jean</text>
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<text>Flaxman, John (1755-1826), English sculptor and illustrator, a leader of the neoclassical movement in England. Born in York, he studied at the Royal Academy school in London. From 1775 to 1787 he made delicate relief decorations, modeled on Greek and Roman pottery, for the noted potter Josiah Wedgwood. From 1787 to 1794 Flaxman worked in Rome, where he did spare but expressive line drawings for the ancient Homeric epics the Iliad and the Odyssey (1793). Returning to London in 1794, he illustrated the works of the ancient Greek dramatist Aeschylus and those of Dante. He also sculpted many monuments, notably that to William Murray (1705-93), 1st earl of Mansfield (1801; Westminster Abbey). Flaxman was the first professor of sculpture at the Royal Academy school. </text>
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<text>Flaxman, John</text>
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<text>Flagg, James Montgomery (1877-1960), American illustrator and poster designer. Born in Pelham Manor, New York, he was a regular illustrator by the age of 16 for the periodicals Judge and Life. He later worked for Cosmopolitan and the Saturday Evening Post. As official New York State military artist in World War I, he designed the famous I Want You poster and others to stimulate recruiting. Flagg also painted portraits, drew caricatures of celebrities, and wrote books, including the autobiographical Roses and Buckshot (1946). </text>
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<text>Flagg, James Montgomery</text>
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<text>Feke, Robert (circa 1705-c. 1750), one of the leading American colonial portraitists of the 18th century. Although details of his biography are obscure, it appears that most of his work was done in Boston and Philadelphia. His first and largest portrait, Family of Isaac Royall (1741, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts), is representative of much of his work: It is a rigidly organized, flat composition showing a sober Puritan family group. Feke's paintings are important not for their psychological penetration—most of his faces are relatively wooden and unindividualized—but for their striking use of rich color and their faithful rendering of the textures of satins, velvets, and brocades. </text>
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<text>Feke, Robert</text>
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<text>Feininger, Lyonel Charles Adrian (1871-1956), American painter, known for his cubist-influenced style, consisting of sharp architectonic forms and interpenetrating planes of color. Born in New York City, he studied art in Berlin, Paris, and Hamburg between 1887 and 1893. He was a cartoonist for German humor magazines and for the Chicago Tribune until 1908. In 1911, under the influence of French cubists—particularly Robert Delaunay—he turned seriously to painting, exhibiting with the Blaue Reiter group in Berlin in 1913. Feininger's meticulously drafted works—representing buildings, locomotives, seascapes, and ships—are composed almost wholly of straight lines and color planes. Even the light that illuminates his scenes is subdivided and partitioned into prismatic planes. In mature works such as Gelmeroda VIII (1921, Whitney Museum, New York City), his virtuosic use of overlapping veils of colored light creates an effect of dematerialization and mystery. Feininger taught at the Bauhaus in Germany from 1919 to 1933. He returned to the U.S. in 1937, where a new theme—skyscrapers—dominated much of his later work. </text>
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<text>Feininger, Lyonel Charles Adrian</text>
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<text>Falconet, Étienne Maurice (1716-91), French 18th-century sculptor. His early works, such as Bather (1757, Louvre, Paris), combine classical subject matter with delicate rococo execution. From 1757 to 1766, as head of the Sèvres porcelain factory, he furnished numerous models—children, nudes, lovers, dancers—for manufacture in porcelain in an intimate, dainty style. In his important later work, such as the colossal equestrian statue Peter the Great (1778, Saint Petersburg), he adopted an innovative style—strong, animated, and passionate—that prefigured 19th-century romanticism. </text>
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<text>Falconet, Etienne Maurice</text>
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<text>Fabritius, Carel (1622-54), Dutch painter, whose few remaining works show him to have been the most gifted of Rembrandt's pupils. His short career was spent in Delft, where he joined the painters' guild in 1652. His earliest extant work, Raising of Lazarus (circa 1643, National Museum, Warsaw), is reminiscent of Rembrandt's work in composition and gesture but lacks the master's psychological depth. His later works are more original, concentrating on realistic perspective and the depiction of bright daylight effects. The Goldfinch (1654, Mauritshuis, The Hague), with its careful composition, brilliant background, and precise colors, prefigures the technique of Jan Vermeer, who was Fabritius's pupil for a short time. </text>
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<text>Fabritius, Carel</text>
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<text>Exekias, also Execias (flourished about 550-525 bc), Greek potter and vase painter, who excelled in the black-figure style of the 6th century bc. His vases are noted for their refined and slender elegance and strong, incisive painting. Of nine extant vases, probably the most famous is the Vatican Museum vase depicting the mythological warriors Ajax and Achilles playing dice, which shows his characteristic qualities of balanced composition, precise drawing of figures, and their elegant disposition around the circumference of the vase. His painting has a grandeur and power that are derived from his talent for portraying the particular dramatic moment in a scene when the gestures of the participants reveal their inner thoughts. </text>
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<text>Exekias</text>
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<text>Evans, Walker (1903-75), American photographer, who documented the everyday existence of ordinary people. During the Great Depression, as a photographer for the Farm Security Administration (FSA), he worked mainly in the South, recording the plight of farmers and sharecroppers in order to demonstrate the need for government assistance to poor rural areas. In 1941 he and the American writer James Agee published Let Us Now Praise Famous Men, a poetic but unsentimental rendering in text and photographs of the southern sharecropper's life. From 1945 to 1965, as an associate editor of Fortune magazine, Evans produced picture essays on many subjects, including the New York City subways, western ghost towns, and primitive churches. His photographs are noted for their realism and a sense of humanity; even his studies of buildings and interiors convey a feeling of human presence. </text>
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<text>Evans, Walker</text>
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<text>Ernst, Max (1891-1976), German-born French artist, who was a seminal figure in both the Dadaist and surrealist movements. He was noted for an extraordinary range of techniques, styles, and media. Ernst was born in Brühl on April 2, 1891. He enrolled at the University of Bonn in 1909, where he studied philosophy and psychiatry. During World War I he served in the German army. The Dadaist movement had already begun in Switzerland by the time Ernst left the army. Attracted by the Dadaists' revolt against convention, Ernst settled in Cologne and began to work in college. In 1922 he moved to Paris. There he turned to surrealism, painting pictures in which solemn humans and fantastic creatures inhabit precisely detailed Renaissance landscapes. In 1925 he invented frottage (pencil rubbings of objects); later he experimented with grattage (the scraping or troweling of pigment from a canvas). After the invasion of France in World War II he was imprisoned; in the prison camp he worked with decalcomania, a technique of transferring pictures from specially prepared paper (as to glass). He immigrated to the United States in 1941 with the help of the heiress Peggy Guggenheim, whom he married in 1942. Ernst returned to France in 1953. Thereafter his works were highly prized. He died in Paris on April 1, 1976. Throughout his remarkably varied career, Ernst was known for being a tireless experimenter. In all his work he sought the ideal means of conveying in two or three dimensions the extradimensional world of dreams and the imagination. </text>
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<text>Ernst, Max</text>
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<text>Epstein, Sir Jacob (1880-1959), British sculptor of portraits and monumental figures. Of Russian-Polish descent, he was born in New York City. He studied at the Art Students League there and in Paris at the École des Beaux-Arts with Auguste Rodin. After 1905 Epstein lived in England, becoming a British subject in 1910. Epstein's sculpture, influenced by Rodin's style, is distinguished for its rough-hewn realism and vigor. His portraits display a strikingly unconventional manipulation of small surface planes and facial details, such as wrinkles, creating an expressive individuality. His important works in stone include the following: 18 figures for the British Medical Association Building, London (1907-8; destroyed); the tomb of Oscar Wilde in Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris (1909); the figures Day and Night on the Underground Headquarters Building, London (1928-29); and Ecce Homo (1933) for Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. Epstein's notable bronze busts include Joseph Conrad (1924), Albert Einstein (1933), George Bernard Shaw (1934), and Yehudi Menuhin (1945). He was knighted in 1954. Epstein wrote the autobiographical Let There Be Sculpture (1940; revised 1955). </text>
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<text>Epstein, Sir Jacob</text>
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<text>Ensor, James Sidney, Baron Ensor (1860-1949), Belgian painter, whose unique portrayals of grotesque humanity made him a principal precursor of 20th-century expressionism and surrealism. Ensor was born April 13, 1860, in Ostend, Belgium, and, except for three years spent at the Brussels Academy (1877-80), he lived in Ostend all his life. His early works were of traditional subjects—landscapes, still lifes, portraits, interiors—painted in deep, rich colors and lighted by subdued but vibrant light. In the mid-1880s, influenced by the bright color of the impressionists and the grotesque imagery of earlier Flemish masters such as Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Ensor turned toward avant-garde themes and styles. He took his subject matter principally from Ostend's holiday crowds, which filled him with revulsion and disgust. Portraying individuals as clowns or skeletons or replacing their faces with carnival masks, he represented humanity as stupid, smirking, vain, and loathsome. Outstanding in this vein is his immense canvas The Entry of Christ into Brussels in 1889 (1888, Collection Colonel L. Frank, London). Ensor deliberately used harsh, garish colors and violent, broken brushstrokes to heighten the violent effect of his subjects. His work had an important influence on 20th-century painting, his lurid subject matter paving the way for surrealism and Dada, and his techniques—particularly his brushwork and his coloristic sense—leading directly to expressionism. He died in Ostend on November 19, 1949. </text>
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<text>Ensor, James Sidney, Baron Ensor</text>
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<text>Elsheimer, Adam (1578-1610), German painter, one of the first masters of the idyllic landscape. He was trained in the dry manner of Flemish realism, but he acquired a liberating interest in light, atmosphere, and color when he settled (1598) in Italy. In his pictures, which illustrate stories from classical literature or the Bible, the human figures usually play a secondary role to the calm, pleasant landscapes. He fused northern romanticism with Italian clarity, and his scenes contain many of the elements—classical ruins, idealized landscapes, clear light, calm mood—that were to characterize the work of later French masters. </text>
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<text>Elsheimer, Adam</text>
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<text> Eakins, Thomas (1844-1916), American realist painter, one of the foremost of the 19th century. Working independently of contemporary European styles, he was the first major artist after the American Civil War to produce a profound and powerful body of work drawn directly from the realities of American life. Born in Philadelphia on July 25, 1844, Eakins studied drawing at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (1861-66). His concurrent study of anatomy at Jefferson Medical College led to a lifelong interest in scientific realism. During a 3-year stay in Paris (1866-69), where he studied at the École des Beaux-Arts, he was strongly influenced by 17th-century masters, particularly Rembrandt and the Spanish painter Diego Velázquez, who impressed him with their realism and psychological penetration. He returned to Philadelphia in 1870 and lived there the rest of his life. Eakins's paintings depict scenes and people observed in the life around him in Philadelphia, particularly domestic genre scenes of his family and friends. He exercised his scientific inclination in paintings of sailing, rowing, and hunting, where he delineated the anatomy of the human body in motion. He painted several large and powerful hospital scenes, most notably The Gross Clinic (1875, Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia), which combined sharp realism—a depiction of an operation in progress—with psychological acuity in the portrayal of the surgeon. As director of the Pennsylvania Academy,Eakins introduced an innovative curriculum,including thorough study of anatomy and dissection as well as scientific perspective, which revolutionized the teaching of art in America. His insistence on study from the nude scandalized the school's authorities, however, and he was forced to resign in 1886. During the later part of his career, Eakins's scientific interests were overshadowed by his preoccupation with psychology and personality, and in his art he concentrated principally on portraiture—studies of friends, scientists, musicians, artists, and clergymen. In addition to their masterly evocation of personality, these portraits are characterized by uncompromising realism and by a sculptural sense of form, which is evident in the strong modeling of the sitters' heads, bodies, and hands. Typical of his full-length portraits is The Pathetic Song (1881, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.), with the standing figure of a singer in a rich silk gown silhouetted against a dimly lighted music room. Although none of his paintings brought him financial or popular success, Eakins had a profound influence, both as a painter and as a teacher, on the course of American naturalism. He died in Philadelphia on June 25, 1916. </text>
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<text>Eakins, Thomas</text>
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<text>Dyck, Sir Anthony van (1599-1641), Flemish painter, who was one of the most important and prolific portraitists of the 17th century and one of the most brilliant colorists in art. Van Dyck was born March 22, 1599, in Antwerp, son of a rich silk merchant, and his precocious artistic talent was already obvious at age 11, when he was apprenticed to the Flemish historical painter Hendrik van Balen (1575-1632). He was admitted to the Antwerp guild of painters in 1618, before his 19th birthday. He spent the next two years as a member of the workshop of the Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens in Antwerp. Van Dyck's work during this period is in the lush, exuberant style of Rubens, and several paintings attributed to Rubens have since been ascribed to van Dyck. From 1620 to 1627 van Dyck traveled in Italy, where he was in great demand as a portraitist and where he developed the style of his maturity. He toned down the Flemish robustness of his early work to concentrate on a more dignified, elegant manner. In his portraits of Italian aristocrats—men on prancing horses, ladies in black gowns—he created idealized figures with proud, erect stances, slender figures, and the famous expressive “van Dyck” hands. Influenced by the great Venetian painters Titian, Paolo Veronese, and Giovanni Bellini, he adopted colors of great richness and jewel-like purity. No other painter of the age excelled van Dyck at portraying the shimmering whites of satin, the smooth blues of silk, or the rich crimsons of velvet. He was the quintessential painter of aristocracy, and although he was capable of creating brilliantly accurate likenesses of his subjects, he usually portrayed not so much individual characters as human types. Back in Antwerp from 1627 to 1632, van Dyck worked as a portraitist and a painter of church pictures. In 1632 he settled in London as chief court painter to King Charles I, who knighted him shortly after his arrival. He painted most of the English aristocracy of the time, and his style became lighter and more luminous, with thinner paint and more sparkling highlights in gold and silver. At the same time, his portraits occasionally showed a certain hastiness or superficiality as he hurried to satisfy his flood of commissions. In 1635 van Dyck painted his masterpiece, Portrait of Charles I in Hunting Dress (Louvre, Paris), a standing figure emphasizing the haughty grace of the monarch. Van Dyck was one of the most influential 17th-century painters. He set a new style for Flemish art and founded the English school of painting; the portraitists Sir Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough of that school were his artistic heirs. He died in London on December 9, 1641. </text>
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<text>Dyck, Sir Anthony van</text>
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<text>Duveneck, Frank, professional name of Frank Decker (1848-1919), American painter, etcher, and teacher, who had a great influence on American art. Born in Covington, Kentucky, he studied art in Munich and established an art school there, which he soon moved to Florence and Venice. His bold, dark, and loosely painted portraits were in the style of the Munich school. Included among his pupils were the Americans William Chase (1849-1916) and John Twachtman. After 1888 Duveneck taught at the Cincinnati Art Academy. One of his works is The Whistling Boy (1872, Cincinnati Art Museum). </text>
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<text>Duveneck, Frank</text>
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<text> Dürer, Albrecht (1471-1528), the most famous artist of Reformation Germany, widely known for his paintings, drawings, prints, and theoretical writings on art, all of which had a profound influence on 16th-century artists in his own country and in the Lowlands. Dürer was born May 21, 1471, in Nuremberg. His father, Albrecht Dürer the Elder (1427-1502), was a goldsmith and his son's first teacher. From his early training, the young Dürer inherited a legacy of 15th-century German art strongly dominated by Flemish late Gothic painting. German artists had little difficulty in adapting their own Gothic tradition to the Flemish art of Robert Campin, Jan van Eyck, and especially Rogier van der Weyden. The northern empirical approach to reality was their common bond. During the 16th century, stronger ties with Italy through trade, and the spread of Italian humanist ideas northward, infused the more conservative tradition of German art with new artistic ideas. German artists found it difficult to reconcile their medieval devotional imagery—represented with rich textures, brilliant colors, and highly detailed figures—with the emphasis by Italian artists on the antique, on mythological subjects, and on idealized figures. Dürer's self-appointed task was to provide a model for his northern contemporaries by which they could combine their own empirical interest in naturalistic detail with the more theoretical aspects of Italian art. In his many letters—especially those to his lifelong friend the humanist Willibald Pirckheimer (1470-1530)—and in his various publications, Dürer stressed geometry and measurement as the keys to understanding the art of the Italian Renaissance and, through it, classical art. From about 1507 until his death, he made notes and drawings for his best-known treatise, the Four Books on Human Proportions (pub. posthumously, 1528). Artists of his day, however, more visually oriented than literary figures, looked more to Dürer's engravings and woodcuts than to his writings to guide them in their attempts to modernize their art with the classicizing nudes and idealized subjects of the Italian Renaissance. Apprenticeship and First Journey After studying with his father, Dürer was apprenticed (1486) to the painter and printmaker Michael Wolgemut (1434-1519) at the age of 15. Between 1488 and 1493, Wolgemut's shop was engaged in the sizable task of providing numerous woodcut illustrations for the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493), by Hartmann Schedel (1440-1514), and Dürer must have received extensive instruction in making drawings for woodcut designs. Throughout the Renaissance, southern Germany was a center for publishing, and it was commonplace for painters of the period to be equally skilled at making woodcuts and engravings. As was customary for young men who finished their apprenticeships, Dürer embarked on his bachelor's journey in 1490. In 1492 he was in Colmar, where he tried to join the workshop of the engraver Martin Schongauer, who, unbeknownst to Dürer, had died in 1491. Dürer was advised by Schongauer's brothers to travel to the Swiss publishing center of Basel to find work. In Basel and later in Strasbourg, Dürer made illustrations for several publications, including Sebastian Brant's Das Narrenschiff (Ship of Fools, trans. 1507) in 1494. During this early period of his life, between his apprenticeship and his return to Nuremberg in 1494, Dürer's art demonstrates his extreme facility with line and his keen observation of detail. These qualities are especially evident in a series of self-portraits, including an early drawing (1484, Albertina, Vienna) done when he was 13, a thoughtful portrait drawn in 1491 (University Collections, Erlangen, Germany), and a painting of himself as an extremely confident young man (1493, Louvre, Paris). First Italian Journey After marrying Agnes Frey (flourished 1494-1521) in Nuremberg in 1494, he left for Italy. He produced some superbly detailed watercolor landscape studies, probably during his return journey—for example, a view of the Castle at Trent (National Gallery, London). During the next ten years (1495-1505) in Nuremberg Dürer produced a large number of works that firmly established his fame. These include his woodcut series the Apocalypse (1498) and the engravings Large Fortune (1501-2) and Fall of Man (1504). Collectively these works and others of the period show his increasing technical mastery of the woodcut and engraving media, his understanding of human proportions based on passages by the ancient Roman writer Vitruvius, and his brilliant ability to incorporate the details of nature into believable pictures of reality. His Self-Portrait of 1500 (Alte Pinakothek, Munich), in which he portrayed himself as a Christ-like figure, summarizes in visual form his lifelong concern for the elevation of the artist's status above that of a mere artisan. Second Italian Journey Between 1505 and 1507, Dürer once again traveled to Italy. In Venice he met the great master Giovanni Bellini and other artists, and he obtained an important commission for a painting, the Madonna of the Rose Garlands (1506, National Museum, Prague), for the German Merchants' Foundation. Back in Nuremberg in 1507, he began a second period of great productivity in which he created such works as an altarpiece (1508-9, destroyed by fire in 1729) for the Dominican church in Frankfurt; an Adoration of the Trinity panel (1508-11, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna); portraits; and many prints, including two editions of the Passion, woodcuts for Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I's Triumphal Arch, and a series of the Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513), Saint Jerome in His Study (1514), and Melencolia I (1514). Final Journey and Late WorksIn 1520, Dürer learned that Charles V, Maximilian's successor, was scheduled to travel to Aachen from Spain to be crowned Holy Roman emperor of the Habsburg dynasty. Dürer had received an annual stipend from Maximilian, and he was anxious to meet with Charles to have it continued. Armed with prints and other artworks, which he sold along the way to finance his trip, Dürer journeyed to Aachen and on to the Lowlands between 1520 and 1521. His diary provides a fascinating account of his travels, his audiences with royalty, and receptions by fellow artists, especially in Antwerp. His audience with Charles proved successful. He returned to Nuremberg, where he remained until his death on April 6, 1528. His last monumental works are two large panels, the famous Four Apostles (circa 1526, Alte Pinakothek), presented originally as his gift to the city of Nuremberg. The quality of Dürer's work, his prodigious output, and his influence on his contemporaries all underscore the importance of his position in the history of art. In a broader context, his interest in geometry and mathematical proportions, his keen sense of history, his observations of nature, and his awareness of his own individual potential demonstrate the intellectually inquiring spirit of the Renaissance. </text>
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<text>Durer, Albrecht</text>
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card_51704.xml
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<text>Durand, Asher B(rown) (1796-1886), American engraver and painter, born in South Orange, New Jersey. Trained by an engraver and at the American Academy of Fine Arts, he established his reputation as a printmaker with his 1823 engraving of the American artist John Trumbull's painting The Declaration of Independence. Subsequently Durand engraved more than 50 portraits of such personages as the American general Andrew Jackson, the American statesman Henry Clay, and several American presidents. After 1835 he devoted himself primarily to painting, at first figure pieces and portraits, but later realistic landscapes, mostly of the Hudson River valley and New England. With the American painter Thomas Cole he originated the Hudson River school of landscape painting; he was one of the first Americans to encourage painting outdoors. Among examples of Durand's work are Old Oak (1844, New-York Historical Society, New York City); Kindred Spirits, showing Thomas Cole and the American poet William Cullen Bryant admiring a view (1849, New York Public Library, New York City); and Catskill Clove (1866, Century Association, New York City). Durand was a founder (1825) and president (1845-61) of the National Academy of Design. </text>
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<text>Durand, Asher B.</text>
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card_51446.xml
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<text>Dufy, Raoul (1877-1953), French painter of lively outdoor scenes. He was born in Le Havre and studied briefly at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Initially Dufy was influenced by the impressionists, but in 1902 he met Henri Matisse and other Fauve painters, who worked in striking, nonrealistic colors and bold forms. Dufy adopted their style and added to it a vigorous, spontaneous use of line. Gradually his work became lighter, gayer, more luminous, and more dominated by line. This style was especially effective in watercolor. Dufy's favorite subjects were sailing, horse racing, and other outdoor amusements at fashionable resorts. He also painted flowers, musical instruments, and nudes. Dufy did murals, such as those for the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, as well as easel paintings. He won praise for his graphic work, notably the illustrations for Le bestiaire (1911) by Guillaume Apollinaire. Dufy also made woodcuts and designed textiles, tapestries, and ceramics. His brother Jean Dufy (1888-1964), also a painter, worked in a similar style. </text>
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<text>Dufy, Raoul</text>
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card_50753.xml
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<text> Duchamp, Marcel (1887-1968), French Dada artist, whose small but controversial output exerted a strong influence on the development of 20th-century avant-garde art. Born July 28, 1887, in Blainville, brother of the artists Raymond Duchamp-Villon and Jacques Villon (Gaston Duchamp, 1875-1963), Duchamp began to paint in 1908. After producing several canvases in the current Fauvist mode, he turned toward experimentation and the avant-garde, producing his most famous work, Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (Philadelphia Museum of Art) in 1912; portraying continuous movement through a chain of overlapping cubistic figures, the painting caused a furor at New York City's famous Armory Show in 1913. He painted very little after 1915, although he continued until 1923 to work on his masterpiece, The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even (1923, Philadelphia Museum of Art), an abstract work, also known as the Large Glass, in oil and wire on glass that was enthusiastically received by the surrealists. In sculpture, Duchamp pioneered two of the main innovations of the 20th century—mobiles and ready-made art. His Bicycle Wheel (1913, original lost; 3d version, 1951, Museum of Modern Art, New York City) was one of the first sculptures with moving parts. His “ready-mades” consisted simply of everyday objects, such as urinals and bottle racks. After his short creative period, Duchamp was content to let others develop the themes he had originated; his pervasive influence was crucial to the development of surrealism, Dada, and pop art. Duchamp became an American citizen in 1955; he died in Paris on October 1, 1968. </text>
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<text>Duchamp, Marcel</text>
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card_50340.xml
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<text>Duccio di Buoninsegna (1255?-1319), Italian painter, a precursor of the Renaissance, who brought to perfection the art of medieval Italy in the Byzantine tradition. Born in Siena, Duccio was the founder of the Sienese school of painting. His work, all of it religious, is characterized by sensitive drawing, skillful composition, a decorative quality akin to that of mosaic, and a more intense emotional tone than that of the Byzantine models he followed. Duccio's most famous and only signed work is the Maestà (1311), a huge altarpiece painted on both sides, made for the cathedral of Siena and now in its museum. The front shows the Madonna enthroned and surrounded by a host of slightly naturalistic angels, saints, and apostles, unusual in art of that period. The reverse side of the panel (which was split in 1795), contains 26 scenes from the life of Christ, some of them showing new use of realistic perspective. Scenes from the predella below the panel are scattered in various museums. Duccio's other major work is the larger Rucellai Madonna (commissioned 1285), an altarpiece showing the Madonna (seated on a throne with the infant Christ) against a Byzantine gold background and flanked by kneeling angels. Painted for Santa Maria Novella in Florence, it is now in the Uffizi Gallery there. Some small panels and polyptychs of the Madonna and child are attributed to Duccio. </text>
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<text>Duccio di Buoninsegna</text>
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card_49948.xml
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<text>Dubuffet, Jean Philippe Arthur (1901-85), French avant-garde painter, born in Le Havre. After his first exhibition in Paris in 1925, Dubuffet withdrew from the art world and developed a distinctive style of simple, primitive images in a heavily encrusted canvas. When his paintings were exhibited in Paris in 1944, critics described his style as l'art brut (“raw art”) because of its crude and often violent quality; much of it was based on his study of art created by children and by the insane. The style helped Dubuffet gain a worldwide reputation. Many of his works are assemblages, as for example Door with Couch-Grass (1957, Guggenheim Museum, New York City), which is composed chiefly of fragments of paintings, grass, and pebbles. During the early 1960s, Dubuffet produced a series of deft jigsawlike paintings, such as Nunc Stans (1965, Guggenheim Museum), in which tiny, obscure, closely spaced figures and faces dominate. His later work consists of large painted polyester resin sculptures. In all of his work the violence is tempered with elements of vitality and broad humor. </text>
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<text>Dubuffet, Jean Philippe Arthur</text>
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card_49696.xml
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<text>Du Maurier, George Louis Palmella Busson (1834-96), English artist and writer, born in Paris. In 1858 he began to work as a graphic artist. His caricatures for Punch, Once a Week, and the Cornhill Magazine, in which he satirized the middle and upper classes, are of historical value in portraying the fashionable social life of his time. He illustrated works by the English novelists William Makepeace Thackeray, George Meredith, and Elizabeth Gaskell, as well as the Anglo-American novelist Henry James. He wrote and illustrated the novels Peter Ibbetson (1891) and Trilby (1894), both of which were succesfully dramatized; the former was used as a theme for an opera by the American composer Deems Taylor. (1885-1966) </text>
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<text>Du Maurier, George Louis Palmella Busson</text>
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card_49182.xml
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<text>Dove, Arthur Garfield (1880-1946), American painter. He is considered one of the first American abstract artists, although his early paintings were rarely completely abstract; they were usually based on natural shapes such as leaves or clouds. In his later career Dove painted in two different styles, producing both complete abstractions—often severely geometrical in form—and surreal fantasies, such as Rise of the Full Moon (1937, Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C.), in which the landscape is transformed into a cyclops with the moon for an eye. </text>
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<text>Dove, Arthur Garfield</text>
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card_48928.xml
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<text>Dou, Gerard (1613-75), Dutch painter, born in Leiden. Gerard (Gerrit) Dou (Dow) learned glass painting from his father and was one of Rembrandt's first pupils. After some early portraits, he painted chiefly small genre scenes characterized by minute detail, often painted under a magnifying glass, skillful chiaroscuro, and lifelike effect. Among these are The Poulterer's Shop (National Gallery, London) and Evening Light (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam). Dou's work was very popular and continued to be influential until the mid-19th century. </text>
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<text>Dou, Gerard</text>
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card_48711.xml
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<text>Dosso Dossi (circa 1479-1542), Italian painter, one of the last of the Ferrara school. In addition to altarpieces and frescoes, he produced many easel paintings, in which he specialized in allegorical and mythological scenes illustrating stories from history and legend. He was an excellent colorist but mediocre at drafting, and most of his works depend for their effect on shimmering hues and warm atmospheric lighting. He was influenced by the Venetian artists Giorgione and Titian, and he combined their hallmarks—iridescent color, loose brushstrokes, and a love of landscape—with the individuality and fantasy of his Ferrarese heritage, to create a rich and at times somewhat oppressive romanticism. </text>
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<text>Dosso Dossi</text>
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card_48432.xml
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<text> Donatello, real name Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi (1386?-1466), Italian Renaissance sculptor, who is generally considered one of the greatest sculptors of all time and the founder of modern sculpture. Donatello was born in Florence, the son of a wool comber. When he was 17 years old, he assisted the noted sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti in constructing and decorating the famous bronze doors of the baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence. Later, Donatello was also an associate of the noted architect Filippo Brunelleschi, with whom he reputedly visited Rome in order to study the monuments of antiquity. Donatello's career may be divided into three periods. The first and formative period comprised the years before 1425, when his work is marked by the influence of Gothic sculpture but also shows classical and realistic tendencies. Among his sculpture of this period are the statues St. Mark (Church of Or San Michele, Florence), St. George (Bergello, Florence), John the Evangelist (Opera del Duomo, Florence), and Joshua (campanile of the cathedral, Florence). The second period (1425-43) is generally characterized by a reliance on the models and principles of the sculpture of antiquity. From 1425 to 1435 Donatello worked with the Florentine sculptor and architect Michelozzo on a number of projects, including the monument to Bartolomeo Aragazzi (Cathedral of Montepulciano). In their joint work Michelozzo executed the architectural designs and also helped in the making of the bronze castings; Donatello executed most of the statues. From 1430 to 1433 Donatello spent periods in Rome, where he created a number of works, notably the ciborium in the sacristy of the Basilica of Saint Peter, decorated with the reliefs Worshiping Angels and Burial of Christ. It was in Florence, however, that he created the most noted work of this period—the bronze David (circa 1430-35, Bargello), the first nude statue of the Renaissance. In his third and culminating period, Donatello broke away from classical influence and in his work emphasized realism and the portrayal of character and of dramatic action. Notable examples of his sculpture of this period are Miracles of St. Anthony (Sant' Antonio, Padua); Gattamelata (in the square before Sant' Antonio), the first bronze equestrian statue since ancient times; and Judith and Holofernes (Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence). The sculpture of Donatello influenced that of Florence and northern Italy in the 15th century. It was also a major stimulus on the development of realism in Italian painting, notably in the work of the great Paduan artist Andrea Mantegna. Donatello, who died on December 13, 1466, had many pupils, the most important of whom was Desiderio da Settignano. </text>
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<text>Donatello</text>
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card_48036.xml
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<text>Domenico Veneziano (circa 1405-61), Italian painter, who was one of the chief innovators in early Renaissance painting in Florence. Many of his paintings have been lost, and others are of doubtful attribution, but three works remain that illustrate his style. The Carnesecchi Tabernacle (circa 1440, National Gallery, London), a fresco, is an early work that reveals the influence of the earlier Florentine master Masaccio. The Adoration of the Magi (circa 1440, Staatliche Museen, Berlin) contains a well-developed landscape background that was unique in Florentine art of the time and paved the way for further Renaissance landscape developments. The Santa Lucia dei Magnoli Altarpiece (circa 1445, Uffizi Gallery, Florence), painted in pale, cool colors and bathed in strong, white light, has a clarity and lightness that was Domenico's most important contribution to Florentine art and was an alternative to the heavy monumentality characteristic of Masaccio's style. </text>
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<text>Domenico Veneziano</text>
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card_47707.xml
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<text>Domenichino, real name Domenico Zampieri (1581-1641), Italian painter, born in Bologna. He studied under the Italian painter Lodovico Carracci (1555-1619) and later worked with Lodovico's cousin, the painter Annibale Carracci, on the Farnese Palace in Rome. Thereafter, Domenichino did frescoes and panels for churches and palaces in Rome and Naples. His early work, such as the panel Last Communion of St. Jerome (1614, Vatican, Rome), is classical in its calm, careful spatial organization. Later work, inspired by the Italian Renaissance artists Correggio and Michelangelo and marked by movement and dramatic foreshortening, is more baroque. Examples include his frescoes for the San Gennaro Chapel (1631-34, 1635-41) in Naples Cathedral. Domenichino's classical landscapes influenced those of the French artist Claude Lorrain. </text>
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<text>Domenichino</text>
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card_47514.xml
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<text>Doesburg, Theo van (1883-1931), Dutch painter, who was a leading advocate of the 20th-century neoplasticism movement in the Netherlands. He was one of the founders (1917) of De Stijl magazine, which promoted the neoplastic ideals of radical simplification based on the use of straight lines, right angles, and flat planes. Through speeches and articles, Doesburg spread neoplastic ideas to the Bauhaus school, where they influenced the course of midcentury architecture. </text>
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<text>Doesburg, Theo van</text>
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card_47219.xml
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<text>Dix, Otto (1891-1969), German painter and etcher, who was a leader of social realism in Germany after World War I. Horrified by the brutalities of gas and trench warfare, he pictured them with merciless clarity in War (1924), a series of 50 etchings. As a leader of the Neue Sachlichkeit (“new objectivity”) movement, he expressed his disgust with the social injustice of postwar Germany in bitterly satirical works, in which strained contours and sour colors create a feeling of bluntly repellent realism. </text>
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<text>Dix, Otto</text>
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card_46891.xml
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<text> Disney, Walt(er Elias) (1901-66), American cartoon artist and producer of animated films. Disney was born in Chicago on December 5, 1901. He left school at the age of 16; later he studied briefly at art schools in Chicago and Kansas City, Missouri. In 1923 he began to produce animated motion pictures in Hollywood in partnership with his brother Roy O. Disney (1893-1971). Disney produced (1926-28) a cartoon series, Oswald the Rabbit, for Universal Pictures. Steamboat Willie (1928), produced by his own company, introduced Disney's most popular and enduring cartoon character, Mickey Mouse. This film also utilized sound for the first time in an animated cartoon. His Silly Symphony series was inaugurated with Skeleton Dance (1929); he first used color in a film of this series, Flowers and Trees (1932). Disney originated the feature-length cartoon with Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) and followed it with other feature-length films, such as Pinocchio (1940), Fantasia (1941), and Bambi (1942). In the 1950s and '60s Walt Disney Productions, Ltd., was one of the major producers of films for theaters and television. As the scope of his enterprises expanded, Disney retained as much artistic control as possible. The company was involved in the publication of books for children and the syndication of comic strips, most of them featuring such characters as Donald Duck and Pluto, the dog. In 1955 Walt Disney Productions, Ltd., opened a huge amusement park called Disneyland in Anaheim, California. Featuring historical reconstructions, displays, and rides, it became a famous tourist attraction. Disney World opened near Orlando, Florida, in 1971. Meanwhile, in addition to cartoons, the company made several documentary films, including The Living Desert (1953) and Secrets of Life (1956). Beginning in 1950 the company made such live-action films as Treasure Island (1950), Robin Hood (1951), The Shaggy Dog (1959), The Absent-Minded Professor (1961), and Mary Poppins (1964). Animated features of this period included Peter Pan (1953) and The Sword in the Stone (1963). Disney's company was also responsible for the television series “Davy Crockett,” “The Mickey Mouse Club,” and “Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color.” Disney received 39 Academy Awards. He died in Los Angeles on December 15, 1966. </text>
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<text>Disney, Walt</text>
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card_46797.xml
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<text>Di Suvero, Mark (1933- ), American sculptor, whose massive works are constructed from timber, old tires, scrap metal, steel girders, and other industrial materials. His style was influenced by such abstract painters as Franz Kline, an American, whose blunt energetic strokes and thrusting lines are echoed in di Suvero's cantilevered three-dimensional works. His bold constructions are characterized by oblique lines and strong diagonals, and they are set in angular, tense arrangements that often appear to be precariously balanced, although they are in perfect equilibrium. A pervasive playfulness is also evident in his constructions, as if they were intended to be enjoyed as gargantuan toys. </text>
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<text>Di Suvero, Mark</text>
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card_46538.xml
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<text>Desiderio da Settignano, real name Desiderio de Bartolommeo di Francesco detto Ferro (circa 1430-64), Italian sculptor, born in Settignano, near Florence, into a family of stonemasons. Desiderio worked in marble and was influenced by his great Florentine contemporary Donatello, but he developed a less dramatic, more refined and graceful style. Two works are definitely assigned to him: the tomb (begun after 1453, Santa Croce, Florence) of Carlo Marsuppini (1398-1453) and the tabernacle of the holy sacrament (finished 1461, San Lorenzo, Florence). A number of portrait busts, freestanding or bas-relief, have been attributed to him, particularly that of a young woman in the Bargello, Florence. </text>
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<text>Desiderio da Settignano</text>
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card_46175.xml
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<text>Demuth, Charles (1883-1935), American painter, born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. He studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia and in Paris and Berlin. Demuth demonstrated an early awareness of the new avenues of expression being explored by contemporary European artists. Aspects of expressionism, Fauvism, and cubism found their way into his work. His illustrations, executed in line and watercolor between 1915 and 1919 for such works as Nana by the French writer Émile Zola and The Turn of the Screw by the American writer Henry James, achieved considerable critical acceptance. But his fame rests most securely on his watercolors of flowers and circus people and his cool, semiabstract architectural scenes in oil and tempera. Examples of the latter are Machinery (1920, Metropolitan Museum, New York City), Business (1921, Art Institute of Chicago), and My Egypt (1927, Whitney Museum, New York City). </text>
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<text>Delaunay, Sonia Terk (1885-1980), Russian-French painter and designer. Inspired by the forms of cubism and the colors of the French painter Paul Gauguin, the Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh, and the Orphists, she developed a style after 1910 based on the juxtaposition, or “simultaneous contrast,” of bright prismatic colors. She exhibited paintings, fabrics, and bookbindings in this style, and she also created costumes for theatrical productions. Delaunay became a fashion designer in the 1920s, when her brilliant hand-painted fabrics revolutionized the design of textiles. Her later style, after 1940, became more economical and delicate, particularly in gouaches that carried her color experiments to new levels of refinement. </text>
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<text>Delaunay, Sonia Terk</text>
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<text>Delaunay, Robert (1885-1941), French painter, who was a pioneer of abstract art in the early 20th century. In 1912 he moved away from cubism—with its geometric forms and monochromatic colors—to a new style, called Orphism, which concentrated on circular forms and bright colors. His Windows series (1912) was one of the first examples of totally abstract art, an important landmark in modern art. His love of rhythm and movement led to several series of paintings based on sporting events, such as Sprinters (1924-26), and culminated in dazzling abstract works focusing purely on rhythm, such as the later Rhythms and Eternal Rhythms series. </text>
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<text>Delaunay, Robert</text>
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card_44833.xml
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<text> De Kooning, Willem (1904- ), American abstract expressionist painter who had a major international influence on later art styles. Born in Rotterdam, Netherlands, de Kooning left school at the age of 12 and was apprenticed to a firm of commercial artists and decorators. He also received formal art training at the Rotterdam Academy. In 1926 he went to the U.S. and worked for a time as a house painter and later as a commercial artist. During the 1930s he painted murals for the Federal Arts Project of the Work Projects Administration. In 1948, in New York City, he had his first one-man exhibition of black and white abstractions; the show established him as one of the leading members of the New York School of abstract expressionists. The term “action painting” was first applied to de Kooning's work, in reference to his vigorous, gestural brushwork. Two of the outstanding canvases of this period are Asheville (1949) and Excavation (1951). In 1953 de Kooning exhibited six paintings entitled Woman, demonic figures painted in harsh, thick colors. The series was innovative in joining figurative painting and abstract art. In the late 1950s de Kooning turned to more abstract work, evoking landscape forms; since then he has alternated between and combined figurative and abstract styles. Besides painting, he has done lithographs and, since 1969, bronze figural sculptures. A retrospective exhibition of his work was held at the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York City, in 1983-84. </text>
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<text>De Kooning, Willem</text>
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card_44040.xml
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<text>Davis, Stuart (1894-1964), pioneer American abstract painter. He was the first American to assimilate modern developments in French art—particularly cubism and the machinelike stylizations of the French painter Fernand Leger—and transform them into a fresh, distinctively American style. His early experiments in abstraction culminated in a series of works (1927-28) in which he painted nothing but an eggbeater, an electric fan, and a rubber glove. After 1930, his paintings featured brilliant colors and a restless rhythm inspired by his love of jazz. His style, which sometimes incorporated words or bits of recognizable objects into his paintings, was a precursor of the pop art of the 1960s. </text>
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<text>Davis, Stuart</text>
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card_43880.xml
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<text>Davies, Arthur B(owen) (1862-1928), American painter of the romantic school. He was born in Utica, New York, and educated at the Art Institute of Chicago and the Art Students League of New York City. His early canvases, such as Along the Erie Canal (1890, Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C.), were small landscapes. After returning from travels in Europe, he painted larger, delicate romantic landscapes with imaginary figures, such as Leda and the Dioscuri (1905, Art Institute of Chicago). He belonged to The Eight, or Ashcan, a group of antiacademic painters, and was chief organizer of the Armory Show of 1913 in New York City, which introduced modern art to Americans. An experimenter with cubism, he designed tapestries for the Gobelins factory in Paris. </text>
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<text>Davies, Arthur B.</text>
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card_43763.xml
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<text>Davidson, Jo (1883-1952), American sculptor, born in New York City. He studied sculpture at the Art Students League in New York City and the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Working in a variety of materials, including terra-cotta, marble, and bronze, he sculpted portrait busts in a realistic, strongly modeled and psychologically perceptive style. His engaging personality aided him in understanding and winning the cooperation of his subjects. Davidson's portraits of such contemporary notables as Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Anatole France, Marshal Foch, and Albert Einstein won him an international reputation. </text>
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<text>Davidson, Jo</text>
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card_43234.xml
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<text>David d'Angers, real name Pierre Jean David (1788-1856), French sculptor, born in Angers. He studied sculpture and painting in Paris and, as winner of the Prix de Rome, in Rome (1811-16). His masterpiece is Nation Distributing Crowns to Genius (1837), a bas-relief in classical style on the pediment of the Pantheon in Paris. He also did realistic medallions and portrait busts of such notables as the French writer Victor Hugo, the French military leader the marquis de Lafayette, and Thomas Jefferson. Much of David d'Angers's work is in the Museum of Fine Arts in Angers. </text>
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<text>David d'Angers</text>
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<text>Daubigny, Charles François (1817-78), French painter and etcher, born in Paris. He came from an artistic family, who encouraged his talent. In his youth, he painted clock cases and illustrated books. He traveled throughout Europe, studying old and contemporary masters; he was especially influenced by the English landscape painter John Constable and by the Barbizon school, which emphasized painting directly from nature. Daubigny's landscapes, such as View of the Seine (1852, Museum of Fine Arts, Nantes), exhibit his own close familiarity with nature, particularly in his river and lake scenes. His later work, in a looser style, is a forerunner of impressionism. </text>
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<text>Daubigny, Charles Francois</text>
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card_42060.xml
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<text> Dalí, Salvador (1904-89), Spanish painter and writer of the surrealist movement. He was born in Figueras, Catalonia, and educated at the School of Fine Arts, Madrid. After 1929 he espoused surrealism, although the leaders of the movement later denounced Dalí as overly commercial. Dalí's paintings from this period depict dream imagery and everyday objects in unexpected forms, such as the famous limp watches in The Persistence of Memory (1931, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). Dalí moved to the U.S. in 1940, where he remained until 1948. His later paintings, often on religious themes, are more classical in style. They include Crucifixion (1954, Metropolitan Museum, New York City) and The Sacrament of the Last Supper (1955, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.). Dalí's paintings are characterized by meticulous draftsmanship and realistic detail, with brilliant colors heightened by transparent glazes. Dalí designed and produced surrealist films, illustrated books, handcrafted jewelry, and theatrical sets and costumes. His writing consists of ballet scenarios and several books, including The Secret Life of Salvador Dalí (1942) and Diary of a Genius (1965). </text>
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<text>Dali, Salvador</text>
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<text>Cuyp, Aelbert Jacobszoon (1620-91), Dutch painter, born in Dordrecht, son of the portrait painter Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp (1594-1651). Although Cuyp (or Cuijp) painted still lifes, portraits, and interiors, his most characteristic work is devoted to bucolic and outdoor scenes. His paintings are characterized by warmth of color, harmonious blending of light and shade, and a quality of serenity that seems to leave his subjects timeless and ageless. His notable works include Riders with the Boy and Herdsman (National Gallery, London), Piper with Cows (Louvre, Paris), and various landscapes with figures and cattle at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. </text>
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<text>Cuyp, Aelbert Jacobszoon</text>
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card_40992.xml
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<text>Curry, John Steuart (1897-1946), American painter, born in Dunavant, Kansas. He studied at the Art Institute of Chicago, the Art Students League of New York City, and in Paris. After an initial career as a magazine illustrator, Curry worked with notable success as both an easel and mural painter. His murals include decorations for the buildings of the Department of Justice and the Department of the Interior, in Washington, D.C., and dramatic scenes of Kansas landscape and history for the State Capitol in Topeka, Kansas. His oil paintings are realistic depictions, primarily of rural midwestern scenes. With the American artists Thomas Hart Benton and Grant Wood, whose work also dealt with rural life, Curry contributed to the regional school of American painting. He was artist in residence at the University of Wisconsin from 1936 until his death. Among his works are Spring Shower (1931) and Wisconsin Landscape (1938-39), both in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City; and Baptism in Kansas (1928), The Flying Codonas (1932), painted during his travels with a circus, The Ne'er-Do-Well (1929), and The Stockman (1929), all in the Whitney Museum, New York City. </text>
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<text>Curry, John Steuart</text>
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<text> Currier & Ives, firm of American lithographers, active during the 19th century. The firm developed from the business founded in New York City about 1834 by Nathaniel Currier (1813-88). Currier's first successful print depicted destruction from an 1835 fire that destroyed a large part of lower Manhattan. This lithograph was followed by the series, now known as Currier & Ives prints, devoted to contemporary subjects that ranged from the familiar to the sensational: scenes of social and domestic life, public disasters, and Indian raids. In 1857, Currier promoted to partnership in the firm the artist James Merritt Ives (1824-95), whom he had employed as a bookkeeper. Thereafter all prints published by the firm bore the dual trademark. After the deaths of the partners, the firm continued until 1907. Today original Currier & Ives prints, some hand-colored, are valuable collectors' items. </text>
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<text>Currier & Ives</text>
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<text>Cunningham, Imogen (1883-1976), American photographer, best known for her realistic portraits and her close-ups of flowers and plants, born in Portland, Oregon. Originally attracted to the decorative pictorial style of the 19th-century American photographer Gertrude Käsebier (1852-1934), Cunningham was converted in the 1920s by the photographer Edward Weston to the cause of “straight” photography. During the 1920s and 1930s she photographed forms of nature such as flowers in extreme closeups. As a portraitist, Cunningham was known for her intense, honest portrayals of famous personalities, notably film stars in a 1932-34 series for Vanity Fair magazine. She was a member of the West Coast group f.64, which championed sharp-focus prints. </text>
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<text>Cunningham, Imogen</text>
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<text>Cruikshank, George (1792-1878), English illustrator and caricaturist, born in London. His etchings and wood engravings, combining drama and wit, appeared in more than 200 works. Cruikshank first attracted attention with his colored caricatures, published separately or in The Scourge (1811-16), and other satirical periodicals. His subjects, always treated with sharp, satirical insight, ranged from great statesmen to cockneys, from church scenes to tavern brawls. He etched the illustrations for the Humorist (1819-21); Peter Schlemihl (1823), by Adelbert von Chamisso; German Popular Stories (1824-26), by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm; and the magazine Miscellany (1837-43). He also illustrated the Spanish classic Don Quixote (1834) and Oliver Twist (1839), by Charles Dickens. Cruikshank condemned alcohol in two series, The Bottle (1847) and The Drunkard's Children (1848). </text>
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<text>Cruikshank, George</text>
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<text>Crome, John (1768-1821), English painter and etcher, born in Norwich, Norfolk. He is often called Old Crome to distinguish him from his son, John Bernay Crome (1794-1842), known as Young Crome, who was also a painter. Influenced by such Dutch masters as Meindert Hobbema, Old Crome excelled in faithful transcriptions of Norfolk scenery characterized by unique atmospheric effects. In 1803 he and his followers formed the Norfolk Society, of which he became president in 1808. The society was the nucleus of the Norwich school of landscape painting. Among Crome's works are View of Mousehold Heath (circa 1815, Victoria and Albert Museum, London), Moonrise on the Marshes of the Yare (1808-10, National Gallery, London), and Poringland Oak (1817-21, National Gallery). A collection of his etchings was published under the title Norfolk Picturesque Scenery (1834). </text>
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<text>Crome, John</text>
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<text>Crivelli, Carlo (1430?-94?), Italian painter, born in Venice. He was influenced by the schools of Padua and Ferrara and worked primarily in Fermo and neighboring towns. Crivelli's altarpieces and single panels combine Venetian realism, sumptuous color, and rich ornament, such as garlands of fruit, with polished, linear precision. His delicate early work is emotionally expressive; later work is more monumental and reserved. Examples are the Annunciation (1476, National Gallery, London) and the Coronation of the Virgin (1493, Brera Gallery, Milan). </text>
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<text>Crivelli, Carlo</text>
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<text>Crane, Walter (1845-1915), English painter, designer, and illustrator, best known for his illustrations of children's books in a deliberately archaic style. Born in Liverpool, he studied miniature painting and wood engraving in his youth. His paintings and book illustrations were influenced by the Pre-Raphaelites and by Japanese prints. With the designer William Morris he was a leader in the Arts and Crafts movement, which sought to reform the decorative arts. His illustrated books for Morris and other publishers include The Frog Prince (1874), Household Stories from Grimm (1882), and his masterpiece, Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene (1894-96). Crane also taught art, directed three art schools, and wrote on aesthetics. </text>
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<text>Crane, Walter</text>
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<text>Covarrubias, Miguel (1904-57), Mexican painter and illustrator, born in Mexico City. In 1923 Covarrubias went to New York City on a scholarship from the Mexican government. He soon achieved success as a stage designer, contributor of drawings and caricatures to such magazines as Vanity Fair and The New Yorker, and creator of the books The Prince of Wales and Other Famous Americans (1925) and Negro Drawings (1927). Also an ethnologist, Covarrubias traveled in the Orient in the 1930s. He wrote and illustrated Island of Bali (1937) as well as a number of works on the art and life of the Indians of North America, particularly the Indians of Mexico. </text>
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<text>Covarrubias, Miguel</text>
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<text>Cotman, John Sell (1782-1842), English painter of watercolor landscapes of the Norwich school. Influenced by the watercolors of Thomas Girtin, Cotman went on sketching tours from 1800 to 1810, taking his inspiration from the Yorkshire and Norfolk countryside. His masterpieces include his views of the Greta River, such as Greta Bridge (1805, British Museum, London). Cotman's original style, which defines scenes solely by patches of flat washes of harmonious colors, without line or modeling, has an abstract geometric quality that was ahead of its time. Later Cotman did architectural etchings of England and Normandy. </text>
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<text>Cotman, John Sell</text>
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<text>Cosway, Richard (1742-1821), English painter of miniatures, born in Devonshire, and trained in art in London. Having gained the friendship of the prince of Wales, later King George IV, Cosway won appointment as court painter. He painted members of the royal family, such as Mrs. Maria Fitzherbert (1756-1837), first wife of the prince of Wales. Cosway's subjects also included aristocrats of both England and France, such as Madame du Barry, mistress of King Louis XV of France. Cosway was one of the first painters to use delicate brushwork in watercolor to bring out the beauties of the ivory on which miniatures were painted. He expressed with great skill the artificial grace and charm that characterized the age in which he lived. He amassed a large fortune and a valuable collection of paintings and curios. His wife, Maria Hadfield (1759-1838), who had been trained in Italy, was also a noted miniaturist. </text>
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<text>Cosway, Richard</text>
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<text>Correggio, real name Antonio Allegri (circa 1489-1534), Italian Renaissance painter, whose innovations in depicting space and movement anticipated the baroque style. Born in Correggio, he studied painting reputedly with an uncle and with Francesco Bianchi-Ferrari (1457-1510) in Modena. His work was influenced by Andrea Mantegna and Leonardo da Vinci. Settling in Parma in 1518, Correggio painted his first set of frescoes in the Abbess's Salon of the Convent of San Paolo; they are known collectively as Diana Returning from the Chase. This work is notable for the extreme foreshortening of the cherubs placed in many small panels around the room. In 1520 he began the fresco The Ascension of Christ (1520-24) in the cupola of the Church of San Giovanni Evangelista, Parma. The skillful use of light and shadow and luminous colors enhances the illusionistic technique, which makes the scene seem to extend beyond the physical limits of the dome. Similar but more complex effects may be observed in The Assumption of the Virgin (1526-30) in the Cathedral of Parma. He returned to Correggio about 1530, after the death of his wife, before completing other decorations in the cathedral. He died in Correggio on March 5, 1534. Correggio's paintings are characterized by sensuous nude figures, colors that have a cool, silvery sheen, great skill in foreshortening, and originality of perspective. Some 40 of his canvases are extant. All represent religious and mythological subjects. The religious paintings, such as the Madonna and Saint Jerome, also called Day (circa 1527, Parma Gallery) and Holy Night (c. 1530, Dresden Gallery), are distinguished usually by a pearly tonality. The nudes in his mythological scenes, notably Jupiter and Io (c. 1532, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) and Jupiter and Antiope (c. 1532, Louvre), express spiritual ecstasy similar to that of his religious figures. The painters of the Carracci family, the 16th-century Bolognese founders of the eclectic school, and Correggio's pupil Il Parmigianino incorporated Correggio's style into Italian art. </text>
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<text>Correggio</text>
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<text>Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille (1796-1875), renowned French painter, especially of landscapes, who worked in neoclassical, romantic, and realistic styles and was a forerunner of the impressionistic style. Corot was born in Paris on July 16, 1796, the son of a draper, who reluctantly allowed him to study painting. From the academic landscape painter Victor Bertin he learned classical principles of composition, which shaped the calm, well-structured landscapes he painted (1825-28) in Italy. Examples are the Forum (1826) and the Bridge of Narni (1827), both of which are in the Louvre, Paris. From 1828 until his death, Corot lived in Paris. During the warm months he traveled throughout Europe, painting small oil sketches that, like those of his friends in the Barbizon school of artists, are among the first French landscapes to be painted outdoors. He worked during winter months in his studio, producing large salon pieces with biblical or historical subjects. By 1845, after receiving critical acclaim, Corot began to sell his work. His landscapes thereafter became imaginary creations bathed in a filmy romantic atmosphere achieved by silvery tones and soft brushstrokes. Examples of this protoimpressionistic style, for which he became famous, are versions of Ville d'Avray and Memory of Mortefontaine (1864, Louvre). Although he tended to repeat his success in this vein to meet popular demand, he also painted such outstanding works as The Belfry at Douai (1871, Louvre) in his earlier classical style; he also painted a number of portraits and figure studies. He was generous to his friends and pupils with both time and money, earning the title père (“father”) Corot. He died in Paris on February 22, 1875. </text>
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<text>Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille</text>
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<text>Cornell, Joseph (1903-72), American sculptor of assemblages that nostalgically allude to the artist's private world. Born in Nyack, New York, he was influenced by Dada, surrealism, cubist abstraction, and collage. In the mid-1930s he evolved his characteristic work—a glass-fronted box containing found objects, such as photographs and printed material, as well as multiple-image and freeze-frame film fragments, carefully arranged in surrealistic juxtaposition. An example is Medici Slot Machine (1942, private collection, New York City). These uniquely expressive constructions that create a world of their own have been likened by scholars to the reminiscent novels of the French author Marcel Proust. </text>
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<text>Cornell, Joseph</text>
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<text>Cornelius, Peter von (1783-1867), German painter, who was a leader of the Nazarene movement. Born in Dusseldorf, he went to Rome in 1811, where he joined the Nazarenes, a communal group dedicated to the ideals of Italian Renaissance art and the revival of fresco. Cornelius's frescoes, the Story of Joseph (1816, Staatliche Museen, Berlin), led to a series of lucrative official commissions in Germany for the kings of Bavaria and Prussia. As director of the Düsseldorf Academy and subsequently of the Munich Academy, he influenced younger artists. Today his style is considered mechanical and uninspired. </text>
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<text>Cornelius, Peter von</text>
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<text>Copley, John Singleton (1738-1815), the foremost and one of the most prolific artists of colonial America. Copley was born July 3, 1738, in Boston, and was trained by his stepfather, a mezzotint engraver. Copley's early work shows the influence of the Boston painter John Smibert (1688-1751) and of English rococo portraitists. From the latter he learned the device of the portrait d'apparat, in which artifacts used by the subject are included in the portrait, as in Paul Revere (circa 1768, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), an intense likeness of the patriot-silversmith holding one of his silver teapots. By 1760 Copley's distinctive style had crystallized, characterized by meticulous technique, clear verisimilitude, and a vivid, balanced palette. His sitters included famous politicians (John Hancock, 1765, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) and wealthy New Englanders (Mrs. Sylvanus Bourne, 1766, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). Well aware of his outstanding gifts, Copley sent his painting The Boy with the Squirrel (1765, Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, Massachusetts) to London, where it was exhibited. Impressed by the painting, the English portraitist Sir Joshua Reynolds and the expatriate American painter Benjamin West urged Copley to immigrate to Europe. In 1774 Copley followed their advice by touring Italy and then settling in London in 1775. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in the following year and a full member in 1779, the same year he exhibited his protoromantic Watson and the Shark (1778, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), a virtuoso rendering of an actual incident in Havana Harbor. Under West's influence, Copley turned to history painting, with such splendid large canvases as The Death of the Earl of Chatham (1779-81, Tate Gallery, London), a dramatically composed version of a timely event. Copley died September 9, 1815, in London. </text>
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<text>Copley, John Singleton</text>
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card_36460.xml
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<text>Constable, John (1776-1837), English painter, who was a master of landscape painting in the romantic style. His works, done directly from nature, influenced French painters of the Barbizon and impressionist schools. Constable was born June 11, 1776, in East Bergholt, Suffolk. He worked in his father's flour mill before going to London in 1799 to study at the Royal Academy School. He exhibited his first landscape paintings in 1802 and thereafter studied painting and English rural life on his own, developing a distinctly individual style. His paintings, executed entirely in the open air rather than in a studio, as was customary, were an innovation in English art. Constable departed from the neoclassical traditions of Dutch and English painting by discarding the usual brown underpainting and achieving more natural, luminous lighting effects through the use of broken bits of color applied with a palette knife. He endeavored to portray the effect of the scene, often softening physical details. He was fascinated by reflections in water and light on clouds. Although he lived in London, he painted the country around the Stour River in Suffolk and in Salisbury and Dorset. For many years Constable received little recognition or support in England. In France, however, where his famous Hay Wain (1812, National Gallery, London) was shown by a French dealer at the Paris Salon of 1824, he was much admired by the romantic painter Eugène Delacroix, by the Barbizon painters, who began to paint outdoors, and by the impressionists, who painted the effects of light. He became a member of the Royal Academy in 1829. Constable died in London, March 31, 1837. Among Constable's works are The Cornfield (1826) and Valley Farm (1835), both in the National Gallery, London, and Wivenhoe Park, Essex (1817, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.). Many small oil sketches are in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, where they did much to increase his reputation in England. Some works formerly attributed to him are now known to be the work of his son Lionel, a painter, as were all five of Constable's children. </text>
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<text>Constable, John</text>
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card_36210.xml
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<text> Cole, Thomas (1801-48), American painter, born in Bolton, Lancashire, England. He began his artistic career as a wood engraver. In 1819 he immigrated to the United States with his parents and continued working as an engraver. In 1823 he began studying at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and painting landscapes. Two years later he moved to Catskill, New York, a town on the Hudson River. There he quickly gained recognition for his allegorical and romanticized landscapes, which are generally considered to be the first important American landscape paintings. Because of his fame, he attracted a group of American landscape artists that became known as the Hudson River school. Cole is best known for Oxbow of the Connecticut (1836) and In the Catskills (1837), both in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, and a series of five allegorical canvases, The Course of Empire (1836, New York Historical Society, New York City). </text>
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card_35921.xml
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<text>Clouet, Jean (circa 1485-c. 1540), French artist of Flemish origin, and the most important member of the Clouet family of portraitists. Renowned for his superb royal portraits, Clouet was appointed chief court painter to King Francis I of France by 1522. While retaining the characteristic Flemish love of detail and finish, he infused his portraits with a cool Italian Renaissance idealism, as in his famous Francis I (circa 1525, Louvre, Paris). In a collection of more than 500 red-and-black chalk drawings, all associated with Clouet's atelier, 130 are attributed to his hand. All are portrait studies or finished portrait drawings and reveal Clouet to have been a draftsman equal to his great contemporary, Hans Holbein the Younger. Clouet was succeeded as court painter by his son, François Clouet (1510?-72), a prolific artist who retained the post under four successive Valois kings of France. </text>
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<text>Clouet, Jean</text>
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card_35614.xml
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<text>Cimabue, real name, Cenni di Pepi (circa 1240-c. 1302), Italian painter and mosaicist, born in Florence. He was one of the most important artists of his time, breaking with the formalism of Byzantine art, then predominant in Italy, and introducing a more lifelike treatment of traditional subjects. He was the forerunner of the realistic Florentine school of the early Renaissance founded by Giotto, and he is believed to have been Giotto's teacher. Among Cimabue's works are Crucifix (circa 1260, San Domenico, Arezzo) and Maestà, or Madonna Enthroned (c. 1285, Uffizi Gallery, Florence). He also made a mosaic of St. John (Pisa Cathedral) and, with assistants, painted fresco cycles of saints and apostles and scenes from the Apocalypse in the upper and lower churches of San Francesco in Assisi. </text>
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<text>Cimabue</text>
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card_35220.xml
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<text>Church, Frederick Edwin (1826-1900), American painter, born in Hartford, Connecticut. He studied painting with Thomas Cole and became a member of the Hudson River school, which specialized in romantic landscapes of the Hudson River valley. Although he painted scenes of this type—notably Niagara Falls (1857, Corcoran Gallery, Washington, D.C.) and Catskill Mountains (1852, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota)—Church preferred landscapes of scenes in South America, Europe, and Palestine. He produced such works as The Aegean Sea (1871) and Heart of the Andes (1859), both in the Metropolitan Museum, New York City. </text>
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<text>Church, Frederick Edwin</text>
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card_34631.xml
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<text>Christo, full name Christo Javacheff (1935- ), Bulgarian-born American artist whose “wrapped” objects are among the most extreme examples of modern conceptual art and the form known as earthworks. He lived in France from 1958 to 1964, when he went to the United States. His early works were empaquetages, in which he packaged bottles, cans, or boxes in cloth or plastic. He became well-known for his later works in which he temporarily wrapped very large objects or whole buildings. His most massive undertaking was Running Fence (1976), a nylon ribbon 5.4 m (18 ft) high that extended 38.4 km (24 mi) through two California counties. Both it and the earlier Valley Curtain (1972) were the subjects of documentary films by the avant-garde cinematographers Albert (1926- ) and David (1932-87) Maysles. Recent constructions include the wrapping of islands in Biscayne Bay, Florida (1983), and the Pont Neuf in Paris (1985). </text>
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<text>Christo</text>
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card_34394.xml
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<text> Chirico, Giorgio de (1888-1978), major Italian painter, who founded the metaphysical school. He was born in Volos, Greece, the son of an Italian engineer. He studied art in Athens and in Munich, where he was strongly influenced by the allegorical works of the 19th-century Swiss painter Arnold Böcklin. In Turin and Florence and in Paris, where he settled in 1911, he painted deserted cityscapes, such as Enigma of an Autumn Night (1910) and Mystery and Melancholy of a Street (1914). These early metaphysical works, through sharp contrasts of light and shadow and exaggerated perspective, evoke a haunting, ominous dream world. As an army conscript in Ferrara in 1915 de Chirico met the futurist painter Carlo Carrà; together they founded the magazine Pittura Metafisica in 1920. From 1915 to 1925 de Chirico painted bizarre, faceless mannequins and juxtaposed wildly unrelated objects in his still lifes, a technique adopted by the surrealists. From 1924 to 1930 de Chirico gave enormous impetus to the surrealist movement and influenced such surrealists as Yves Tanguy and Salvador Dalí. By the mid-1930s he had turned to an outworn academic style and chose to become a fashionable portraitist. </text>
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<text>Chirico, Giorgio de</text>
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card_33992.xml
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<text>Chippendale, Thomas (1718-79), English furniture designer and cabinetmaker, born in Yorkshire, the son of a carpenter. Chippendale established a furniture factory in London in 1749 and soon gained a wide reputation. The Chippendale style combines solidity with grace and elaborate decoration, usually in Chinese, Gothic, or rococo style. He published three editions of The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Director (1754, 1755, 1762), a book containing 160 engravings of furniture designs, which were widely copied and imitated. In the later years of his long career, in collaboration with the architect Robert Adam, Chippendale created his most beautiful furniture. After his death his business was continued by his son, Thomas Chippendale (1749-1822). </text>
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<text>Chippendale, Thomas</text>
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card_33791.xml
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<text>Chao Meng-Fu (1254-1322), Chinese painter and calligrapher of the Yüan dynasty, who worked in traditional and advanced styles. Chao was court painter and held other high government posts. His animal paintings, such as Sheep and Goat (Freer Gallery, Washington, D.C.), are in a conservative, realistic style. His landscapes and studies of bamboo, however, show a more original approach that emphasizes rapid, expressive, yet highly disciplined calligraphic brush strokes, as in Bamboo, Tree, and Rock (National Palace Museum, Taiwan). </text>
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<text>Chao Meng-Fu</text>
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card_33146.xml
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<text>Cellini, Benvenuto (1500-71), Florentine sculptor and engraver, who became one of the foremost goldsmiths of the Italian Renaissance, executing exquisitely crafted coins, jewelry, vases, and ornaments. Born in Florence, on November 3, 1500, Cellini was apprenticed to a goldsmith at the age of 15. When he was 16, his fiery temper and continual dueling and brawling caused him to be exiled to Siena. Later, in Rome, he was Michelangelo's pupil for a short while. Among Cellini's most famous patrons were Pope Clement VII, Pope Paul III, Francis I of France, and the Florentine noble Cosimo I de' Medici. Francis I invited him to Paris in 1540, where he modeled the bronze reliefs of the Nymph of Fontainebleau (Louvre, Paris). He also executed an elaborate gold saltcellar for Francis (1539-43, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna). Compelled to leave in 1545 because of his quarrels with the king's mistress and his eccentricities, Cellini returned to Florence. There, under the patronage of Cosimo de' Medici, he executed many fine works in metal, among them a bronze portrait bust of Cosimo and the colossal bronze statue Perseus and Medusa (1545-54, Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence). He died in Florence, on February 13, 1571. Cellini is also noted for his autobiography, written between 1538 and 1562, the standard English version of which was published in 1960. An embellished account of Cellini's escapades, adventures, and intrigues, this text provides a valuable portrait of daily, political, social, and ecclesiastical life in the 16th century. </text>
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<text>Cellini, Benvenuto</text>
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card_32183.xml
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<text>Cavallini, Pietro (circa 1250-c. 1330), one of the most important Italian painters of his day. Born in Rome, he was one of the first painters to break away from the austere and rigid Byzantine style by attempting to render space in a naturalistic three-dimensional manner that was a precursor of actual perspective. He influenced the lifelike style of the Florentine painter Giotto, one of the foremost influences on the Renaissance. Cavallini's works include mosaics in Santa Maria in Trastevere and a series of frescoes in Santa Cecilia, both in Rome. </text>
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<text>Cavallini, Pietro</text>
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card_31969.xml
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<text> Catlin, George (1796-1872), American painter and writer, born in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, whose art was self-taught. In 1823 he gave up the practice of law and established himself as a portraitist in Philadelphia. From 1824 to 1829, Catlin painted portraits in Washington, D.C. and in Albany, New York. After meeting a tribal delegation of Indians from the Far West, he became eager to preserve a record of vanishing types and customs of the American Indians, and traveled for years in North and South America, painting and sketching hundreds of portraits, and scenes of villages, religious rituals, games, and Indians at work. He stimulated popular interest in Indian culture by publicly exhibiting his work and by presenting groups of Indians to audiences in the United States and Europe. Most of his paintings are in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. The American Museum of Natural History in New York City owns about 700 of his sketches. Catlin also wrote and illustrated Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians (2 vol., 1841), Catlin's North American Indian Portfolio (1844), and My Life Among the Indians (1867). His work is a valuable source of historical information. </text>
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<text>Catlin, George</text>
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<text>Cassatt, Mary (1844-1926), American painter and etcher, who lived and worked in France as an important member of the impressionist group. Cassatt was born on May 22, 1844, in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania. In 1861 she began to study painting at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia, but proclaimed her independence by leaving in 1866 to paint in France. By 1872, after study in the major museums of Europe, her style began to mature, and she settled in Paris. There her work attracted the attention of the French painter Edgar Degas, who invited her to exhibit with his fellow impressionists. One of the works she showed was The Cup of Tea (1879, Metropolitan Museum, New York City), a portrait of her sister Lydia (1838?-83) in luminescent pinks. Beginning in 1882 Cassatt's style took a new turn. Influenced, like Degas, by Japanese woodcuts, she began to emphasize line over mass and experimented with asymmetric composition—as in The Boating Party (1893, National Gallery, Washington, D.C.)—and informal, natural gestures and positionings. Portrayals of mothers and children in intimate relationship and domestic settings became her theme. Her portraits were not commissioned; instead, she used members of her own family as subjects. France awarded Cassatt the Legion of Honor in 1904; although she had been instrumental in advising the first American collectors of impressionist works, recognition came more slowly in the U.S. With loss of sight she was no longer able to paint after 1914; she died June 14, 1926, at her country house near Paris. </text>
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<text>Cassatt, Mary</text>
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card_31369.xml
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<text>Caslon, William (1692-1766), English typefounder, born in Cradley, Worcestershire. He began his career in London as an engraver of firearms and later became a tool cutter in a book bindery. He then opened a typefoundry and developed a remarkably legible type, notable for the simplicity of its design and for its readability. The outstanding printers of the period in both Europe and the United States were supplied by Caslon's foundry. In 1776 the American Declaration of Independence was printed in Caslon type. The type diminished in popularity in the early 19th century, but about 1845, printers again began to use it widely. </text>
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<text>Caslon, William</text>
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card_31026.xml
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<text>Carracci, Annibale (1560-1609), Italian early baroque artist, whose reform of Mannerist excesses foreshadowed the emergence of high baroque art in Europe. Annibale, born in Bologna on November 3, 1560, was the most important member of an influential family of painters that included his elder brother Agostino (1557-1602) and their cousin Lodovico (1555-1619). They established (1585) the Accademia degli Incamminati, a painting school with the avowed purpose of reforming the art by retrieving the classical principles of the High Renaissance masters, as exemplified in the work of Michelangelo, Raphael, and Correggio. The academy attracted such promising young painters as Alessandro Algardi, Domenichino, and Guido Reni and made Bologna one of the most active and influential Italian art centers for over two decades. Annibale, with the design and execution of such noble fresco series as the lyrical Romulus cycle (1588-92), in Bologna's Palazzo Magnani, soon was recognized as the most gifted of the Carracci. Among his oil paintings of this period are The Butcher's Shop (circa 1583, Christ Church, Oxford, England) and The Assumption (1587, Gemäldegalerie, Dresden). Annibale was summoned to Rome in 1595 to decorate the state apartments of the Palazzo Farnese, the city's most splendid new private palace. He began his masterpiece, the magnificent illusionistic ceiling frescoes in the main reception room, the Galleria, in 1597. Against a painted architectural background representing stucco heroic nudes, bronze plaques, and carved marble decorations are set what appear to be 11 huge easel paintings in ornate frames, depicting in idealized human form scenes of the loves of the pagan gods, derived from the Roman poet Ovid's fables. Finished by 1604, the frescoes astounded Rome's artistic world. They were extravagantly praised by such baroque artists as the Italian master Gian Lorenzo Bernini and the Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens; both freely acknowledged the powerful influence of the Galleria frescoes on their own art. Despite the urging of his devoted assistants, including his chosen artistic successor Domenichino, Annibale undertook few commissions after this monumental work. Outstanding are his serene landscape settings for Christ's Passion (Galleria Doria-Pamphili, Rome), which directly presage the neoclassical landscapes of the French painters Claude Lorrain and Nicolas Poussin. He contracted a form of paralysis in 1605, and died in Rome July 15, 1609. </text>
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<text>Carracci, Annibale</text>
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<text>Carrà, Carlo (1881-1966), Italian artist, who was a leader of both futurist and metaphysical painting. At first he tried to infuse the geometric structure and neutral palette of cubism with a futurist sense of movement. In the army he met Giorgio de Chirico, founder of pittura metafisica (“metaphysical painting”) and adopted this new concept. In such works as The Enchanted Room (1917), he created an atmosphere of mystery and apprehension through exaggerated Renaissance perspective and ominous light. Later works were influenced by Giotto and Paul Cezanne. </text>
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<text>Carra, Carlo</text>
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<text>Carr, Emily (1871-1945), Canadian artist, who painted the Indian villages and forests of British Columbia. Influenced by impressionism, Fauvism, and cubism, she portrayed nature in a powerful style of her own. Paintings such as Rushing Sea of Undergrowth (1936) are characterized by intense colors and swirling forms based on the spiral. Carr wrote Klee Wyck (1941) and other books of sketches about Indian life. </text>
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<text>Carr, Emily</text>
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<text>Carpaccio, Vittore (1455?-1526?), Italian painter, whose pageant paintings illustrate in an incomparable manner Venetian life during the early renaissance. He was born in Venice. He was greatly influenced by the Venetian painters Gentile and Giovanni Bellini. Carpaccio executed four cycles of narrative paintings, of which only the first two are notable. The first, done between 1490 and 1495, was the cycle of nine large paintings, Legend of Saint Ursula (Academy of Fine Arts, Venice), considered his finest work. Especially important is the painting Dream of St. Ursula. The second cycle, painted 1502-7, consists of nine scenes that are mainly from the lives of St. George and St. Jerome (Scuola San Giorgio degli Schiavoni, Venice). The two best-known paintings of this cycle are St. George Slaying the Dragon and St. Jerome in His Study. Among Carpaccio's other paintings are A Saint Reading and Virgin and Child (both in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.). Carpaccio was one of the most able and attractive painters of the early Renaissance in Venice. His drawing is sometimes faulty; his use of color, however, is clear and harmonious, and he handles light and atmosphere with masterly effect. </text>
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<text>Carpaccio, Vittore</text>
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<text>Caro, Anthony (1924- ), English sculptor, whose large, powerful works are important examples of modern constructivist and minimal art. Strongly influenced by the American abstract sculptor David Smith during a trip to the United States in 1959, Caro abandoned traditional cast-metal sculpture in favor of a technique involving the construction of abstract works from rigid pieces of metal. His sculptures are large, often massive assemblages of sheet metal, industrial girders, piping, or pieces of steel, welded together. They are either allowed to rust naturally or are painted bright colors as, for example, Midday (1960, T. and P. Caro Collection, London). In a different mode, works such as Riviera (1974, private collection, Seattle) consist of several freestanding metal segments loosely grouped on a floor. As a teacher in London and the U.S., Caro strongly influenced younger sculptors. </text>
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<text>Caro, Anthony</text>
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<text> Caravaggio (1573-1610), Italian baroque painter, who played a pivotal role in the development of a naturalistic style in 17th-century painting. His use of models from the lower echelons of society in his early secular works and later religious compositions appealed to the Counter Reformation taste for realism, simplicity, and piety in art. Equally important is his introduction of dramatic light-and-dark effects—termed chiaroscuro—into his works. Originally named Michelangelo Merisi, Caravaggio was born September 28, 1573, in the Lombardy hill town of Caravaggio, from which his popular name is derived. He may have spent four years as apprentice to Simone Peterzano (flourished 1573-96) in Milan before going to Rome in 1593, where he entered the employ of the Mannerist painter Cesare d'Arpino (1568-1640), for whom he executed fruit and flower pieces (now lost). Among his best-known early works are genre (everyday) scenes with young men—for example, The Musicians (circa 1591-92, Metropolitan Museum, New York City)—which were done for his first important patron, Cardinal Francesco del Monte. Scenes such as the Fortune Teller (1594, versions in the Louvre, Paris, and the Museo Capitolino, Rome) were especially appealing to the artist's followers. Caravaggio's mature manner commenced about 1600 with the commission to decorate the Contarelli Chapel in San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome with three scenes of the life of St. Matthew. The Calling of Saint Matthew (circa 1599-1600) is noted for its dramatic use of “cellar light,” streaming in from a source above the action, to illuminate the classically composed Christ (based on Michelangelo's Adam on the Sistine ceiling) and the other figures, most of whom are in contemporary dress. About 1601, Caravaggio received his second major commission, from Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome for a Conversion of Saint Paul and Martyrdom of Saint Paul. In the former, a bright shaft of light carries symbolic meaning, indicating the bestowal of faith upon the former pagan Saul. Caravaggio's personal life was turbulent. He was often arrested and imprisoned. He fled Rome for Naples in 1607 when charged with murder. There he spent several months executing such works as the Flagellation of Christ (San Domenico Maggiore, Naples), which were crucial to the development of naturalism among the artists of that city. Later that year he traveled to Malta, was made a knight, or cavaliere, of the Maltese order, and executed one of his few portraits, that of his fellow cavaliere Alof de Wignacourt (1608, Louvre). In October of 1608, Caravaggio was again arrested and, escaping from a Maltese jail, went to Syracuse in Sicily. While in Sicily he painted several monumental canvases, including the Burial of Saint Lucy (1608, Santa Lucia, Syracuse) and the Raising of Lazarus (1609, Museo Nazionale, Messina), paintings of densely packed yet simple compositions with large figures clothed in swirling masses of drapery. These works were among Caravaggio's last, for the artist died on the beach at Port'Ercole in Tuscany on July 18, 1610, of a fever contracted after a mistaken arrest. Although the use of both realistic types and strong chiaroscuro originated in northern Italian art of the previous century, Caravaggio brought new life and immediacy to these aspects of painting, with which he effected a transformation of anticlassical Mannerism in early baroque Rome. Despite his personal protestations that nature was his only teacher, Caravaggio obviously studied and assimilated the styles of the High Renaissance masters, especially that of Michelangelo. Caravaggio's impact on the art of his century was considerable. He discouraged potential students, but throughout the century a true naturalist school flourished in Italy and abroad based on an enthusiastic emulation of his style. </text>
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<text>Caravaggio</text>
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<text>Canova, Antonio (1757-1822), Italian sculptor, who, with the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen, was the leading exponent of neoclassicism. Born in Possagno, he studied sculpture in nearby Venice. He won distinction with such marble statues as Daedalus and Icarus (1779, Museo Correr, Venice). On visits to Rome and Naples he was exposed to classical art, and after settling in Rome in 1781, he took an active part in the current revival of interest in antique Greek and Roman styles. For such works as the tombs of Clement XIV (begun 1784, Santi Apostoli, Rome) and Clement XIII (begun 1787, St. Peter's, Rome) and the Perseus with Medusa's Head (1801, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City), he became recognized as the foremost neoclassical sculptor of his day. Canova also received commissions from Napoleon, including the famous Maria Paulina Borghese (1780-1825) as Venus Victrix (1805-7, Galleria Borghese, Rome), a serenely sensuous portrait of Napoleon's sister Pauline reclining. After the fall of Napoleon, Canova was sent to Paris to retrieve the art treasures the emperor had taken from Italy. He also worked on commissions in England. Canova died in Venice. </text>
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<text>Canova, Antonio</text>
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<text>Cano, Alonso (1601-67), Spanish painter, sculptor, and architect, who was one of the foremost masters of Spanish baroque art. All of his work is notable for its religious connotations, and the human figures in his paintings and sculptures radiate devout feeling. His most notable works were the seven paintings illustrating Mysteries of the Virgin (1654, Granada Cathedral) and the carved polychrome altarpiece of Santa Maria, Lebrija (1631). As architect for Granada Cathedral, he executed designs for a new facade (designed 1667) that was one of the most lushly imaginative creations of baroque architecture. He also produced a great quantity of drawings and is considered the foremost Spanish baroque draftsman. </text>
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<text>Cano, Alonso</text>
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<text> Canaletto, real name Giovanni Antonio Canal (1697-1768), Italian painter, known for his sparkling views of Venice. He was born in Venice on October 28, 1697, and died there on April 19, 1768. Canaletto received instruction in painting and perspective from his father, a scene designer in the high baroque tradition. He took as his specialty the relatively new and rare form of painting, the city view (veduta). His principal patrons were English aristocrats on the Grand Tour, for whom his scenes were souvenirs of the sights of Venice—the Grand Canal, the basin of Saint Mark's, plus innumerable scenes of regattas and water festivals, such as the annual celebration of the Marriage of Venice to the Sea. Canaletto's technique had the traditional Venetian hallmarks of luminous light and glowing color, to which he added a Dutch-influenced attention to clear and accurate detail. His early works often feature dark, saturated colors that depict a moist, palpable atmosphere under a stormy or dark sky. Later works—after 1740, when Canaletto began to develop a somewhat looser, less precise style of brushwork—often portray bright sunlit scenes with rich colors highlighted by red and gold. He went to England in 1746 after the War of the Austrian Succession had drastically curtailed the stream of English visitors to Venice. He painted many scenes of English landscapes and country houses before returning to Venice in 1755. Canaletto was elected to the Venice Academy in 1763, but the paintings of his later years were increasingly criticized for their facile manner and mechanical repetition of overly familiar themes. The atmospheric quality of his best works was an important influence on 19th-century landscape painting. </text>
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<text>Canaletto</text>
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<text>Campi, family of 16th-century Italian painters of Cremona. The most important members of the family were the four sons of Galeazzo Campi (1470-1536), who painted religious pictures. Giulio Campi(1500-72). Trained by his father and the Italian architect-painter Giulio Romano, he is best known for building and decorating Santa Margherita in Cremona. He also painted frescoes in the cathedral in Cremona and in other churches in Cremona and Milan. Among his students were his three brothers. Bernardino Campi(1522-91). He is best known for the frescoes in the cupola of San Sigismondo in Cremona. Antonio Campi(1525?-87). He was one of the artists commissioned by Philip II of Spain to decorate the Escorial. He painted the Birth of Christ fresco in San Paolo, Milan. He was also a sculptor, architect, and writer. Vincenzo Campi(1525?-91). He specialized in still lifes and portraits, some of which are in the Bergamo Gallery, Bergamo, and the Brera Gallery, Milan. </text>
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<text>Campi</text>
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<text>Cameron, Julia Margaret (1815-79), English 19th-century photographer, whose portrait techniques represented an important advance in the aesthetics of photography. She produced her first photograph—entitled Annie, My First Success—in 1864, and thereafter turned to a series of portraits of great men of her day, including Alfred, Lord Tennyson; Charles Darwin; Henry Wadsworth Longfellow; Robert Browning; and Sir John Herschel. Unlike most Victorian portrait photographers, she conceived of the photograph not as a detailed, visually precise record of the sitter but as a reflection of the sitter's personality and inner spirit. She pioneered several techniques designed to heighten the expressive possibilities of the portrait, among them soft focus and carefully blurred images; narrow closeup; and harsh lighting. She also produced many studio tableaux and book illustrations; their overripe sentimentality and elaborate poses differed stylistically from her splendid portraits. </text>
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<text>Cameron, Julia Margaret</text>
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<text>Callot, Jacques (1592-1635), French engraver and etcher, an important innovator in both the technique and subject matter of printmaking. As a court printmaker for the Medici in Florence from 1612 to 1621, he developed a new engraving medium (a varnish of linseed oil and mastic), the hardness of which made possible greater fineness and detail. This innovation facilitated the work of the great printmakers of the 1600s, such as Rembrandt. Callot, in works such as the monumental Fair at Impruneta (1620), was one of the first artists to depict a complete cross section of society. Returning to his native Lorraine in 1621, he adapted a more realistic, less courtly style. His masterpieces are the two series, each entitled Miseries of War (both 1633), in which he stripped war of its glory and romance, showing with a merciless eye the distress of the common people. </text>
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<text>Callot, Jacques</text>
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<text>Burne-Jones, Sir Edward Coley, professional name of Edward Coley Jones (1833-98), English painter and designer, born in Birmingham, and educated at the University of Oxford. Trained by the Pre-Raphaelite painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Burne-Jones shared the Pre-Raphaelites' concern with restoring to art what they considered the purity of form, stylization, and high moral tone of medieval painting and design. His paintings, inspired by medieval, classical, and biblical themes, are noted for their sentimentality and dreamlike romanticized style; they are generally considered among the finest works of the Pre-Raphaelite school. They include King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid (1884, Tate Gallery, London) and Pygmalion and the Image (1868-78, Birmingham City Museum and Art Gallery). Burne-Jones was also prominent in the revival of medieval applied arts led by his Oxford friend the poet and artist William Morris. For Morris's firm he designed stained-glass windows, mosaics, and tapestries. His windows may be seen in many English churches, including Christ Church, Oxford, and Birmingham Cathedral. He also illustrated books of Morris's Kelmscott Press, notably Chaucer (1896). Burne-Jones was knighted in 1894. </text>
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<text>Burne-Jones, Sir Edward Coley</text>
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<text>Burgkmair, Hans, the Elder (1473-1531), German Renaissance painter and engraver. A pupil of the artist Martin Schongauer and possibly also of Albrecht Durer, he combined northern Germanic tradition with Italian Renaissance motifs derived from several visits to Italy. His altarpieces and other religious works were a major contribution to the spread of the Renaissance style in Germany. He made nearly 700 wood engravings and was one of the first masters of the color woodcut. </text>
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<text>Burgkmair, Hans, the Elder</text>
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<text>Burchfield, Charles Ephraim (1893-1967), American painter, born in Ashtabula, Ohio, and educated at the Cleveland School of Art. At one time a wallpaper designer, Burchfield devoted himself entirely to painting after 1929. His specialty was depicting scenes of American small-town and country life. From 1943 Burchfield concentrated on landscapes in watercolor. His work ranges from the moody, semiabstract canvases of his early period, represented by Night Wind (1918, Museum of Modern Art, New York City), to the intensely realistic genre painting of midcareer, such as November Evening (1931-34, Metropolitan Museum, New York City) and Freight Car Under a Bridge (Detroit Institute of Art), and the highly romantic landscapes, with anthropomorphized natural features, of his later years. </text>
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<text>Burchfield, Charles Ephraim</text>
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<text>Brueghel, Pieter, the Younger (circa 1564-1638), Flemish painter, eldest son of Pieter Brueghel the Elder, born in Brussels. He spent most of his career in Antwerp, where his predilection for satanic subjects—devils, infernal regions, tortures of the damned—caused him to be called “Hell” Brueghel. In his other works he imitated his father's style and subject matter, perpetuating them until the advent of Flemish baroque art. </text>
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<text>Brueghel, Pieter, the Younger</text>
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<text> Brueghel, Pieter, the Elder (circa 1525/30-69), Flemish artist active in Antwerp and Brussels, famous for his paintings and drawings of landscapes and scenes of robust peasant life, and founder of a dynasty of artists that remained active well into the 17th century. Brueghel's art is often seen as the last phase in the development of a long tradition of Netherlandish painting beginning with Jan van Eyck in the 15th century. This tradition transformed the abstraction of medieval art into a more empirical view of reality. Brueghel clearly rejected the influences of Italian Renaissance art and its classical foundations, which dominated the work of many of his Flemish contemporaries. Rather than mythological subjects, muscular nudes, and idealized scenes, Brueghel's art portrays figures observed from nature acting out realistic situations in believable contemporaneous settings. Brueghel is thought to have come from the town of Breda, located in northern Brabant in present-day Holland. Before he became a member of the painters' guild in Antwerp in 1551, he seems to have studied with Pieter Coecke (1502-50) in Brussels and worked for a short time in Malines. After a trip to Italy between 1552 and 1555, Brueghel returned to Antwerp. In 1563 he married Coecke's daughter and moved to Brussels, where he lived until his death in September 1569. Their two children, Pieter the Younger and Jan, both became painters of some renown. Brueghel's earliest works were landscapes, an interest he retained throughout his life. A number of panoramic landscape drawings made on his Italian trip—for example, those preserved in Berlin (1552, Staatliche Museen) and in London (1553, British Museum)—show Brueghel's ability, even in his early career, to depict the changing seasonal moods and the atmospheric qualities of nature. These same characteristics appear in his later landscape paintings, such as Hunters in the Snow (1565, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) and Magpie on the Gallows (1568, Hessiches Landesmuseum, Darmstadt, Germany). After his return to Antwerp from Italy in 1555, Brueghel regularly made drawings for engravings published by the printing house owned by the graphic artist Hieronymus Cock (circa 1510-70). Some of Brueghel's drawings for Cock were landscapes, but others were clearly meant to capitalize on the popularity of the bizarre art of Brueghel's famous Flemish predecessor Hieronymus Bosch. The fantastic, monstrous figures and demonic dwarfs in Brueghel's series of engravings The Seven Deadly Vices (1557) are within this category. Late in the 1550s, Brueghel began a series of large painted panels with complex compositions depicting various aspects of Flemish folk life. The earliest of these is an encyclopedic portrayal of common sayings, Netherlandish Proverbs (1559, Staatliche Museen), followed by Combat Between Carnival and Lent (1559) and Children's Games (1560, both Kunsthistorisches Museum). All are marked by a perceptive observation of human nature, a pervasive wit, and the vitality of Brueghel's peasant figures. Later examples of peasant folk subjects include Peasant Kermis and Peasant Wedding Feast (both c. 1566-68, Kunsthistorisches Museum). Modern scholars are far from interpreting Brueghel's art as simple drolleries and folk subjects painted by an artist from mere peasant stock, as Karel van Mander (1548-1606) described him in 1604. Recent writers see him as a knowledgeable man who was known to be friends with such intellectuals as geographer Abraham Ortelius. Brueghel's pictures have been variously interpreted as referring to the beliefs of different religious thinkers, to the conflicts between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, to the political domination of the Lowlands by the Spanish, and as parallels to dramatic allegories performed publicly by Flemish societies of rhetoric. </text>
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<text>Brueghel, Pieter, the Elder</text>
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<text>Brown, Ford Madox (1821-93), English painter influenced by the Pre-Raphaelite group. Born in Calais, France, he studied art in Antwerp, Belgium, and opened a studio in London about 1846. He is noted chiefly for historical paintings, distinguished by vivid color, a decorative sense, and accurate detail in costumes and settings. These characteristics reflect his sympathy with the aims of the Pre-Raphaelites, although he was never one of them. Among his best-known works are The Last of England (1855, Birmingham City Art Gallery), Christ Washing St. Peter's Feet (1852, National Gallery, London), and 12 murals for the Town Hall of Manchester depicting the history of that city. </text>
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<text>Brown, Ford Madox</text>
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<text>Brouwer, Adriaen (circa 1605-38), Flemish painter, born in Oudenaarde (now in Belgium). Brouwer (or Brauwer) was probably a student and associate of Frans Hals and also was influenced by Pieter Brueghel the Younger. Brouwer worked in Dutch cities and in Antwerp. One of the best of Flemish genre painters, he is noted for his bright paintings of peasant life, especially raucous tavern scenes. Examples are Smokers (Louvre, Paris) and Tavern Interior (Dulwich College, London). In Antwerp he produced fine landscapes, such as Twilight (Louvre), in subdued earth tones. Brouwer, Adriaen van Ostade, and Jan Steen are called the Little Masters of Holland. </text>
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<text>Brouwer, Adriaen</text>
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<text>Bronzino, Il (1503-72), Italian painter, who was the outstanding artist of the Tuscan High Mannerist style. His real name was Agnolo di Cosimo. As court painter to the Medici in Florence, he produced large numbers of portraits as well as religious pictures. His style, which owed much to his teacher Jacopo da Pontormo, is cold, refined, aristocratic, and technically brilliant in its rendering of surface details and colors. His religious works, such as Christ in Limbo (1552, Santa Croce, Florence), show the typical Mannerist characteristics of elongated forms and crowded, angular compositions. His portraits, while highly stylized in their long lines and elegant poses, achieve a formalized stillness that is the ultimate refinement of Mannerism's usually hectic quality. A famous example is the cool, brilliant Portrait of a Young Man (circa 1535, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). His influence on later portraiture extended to the 19th-century French master J. A. D. Ingres. </text>
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<text>Bronzino, Il</text>
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<text>Brassaï, professional name of Gyula Halasz (1899-1984), French photographer, born in Brassó, Hungary, best known for his studies of Paris by night. His first photographs, published in book form in 1933, include scenes of Parisian streets, bridges, and tourists. He then turned to photographs of “night people”—dancehall girls, drinkers, lovers, streetwalkers, hoodlums—whom he recorded with an impartial eye. </text>
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<text>Brassai</text>
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<text> Brancusi, Constantin (1876-1957), Romanian-born French sculptor, whose seminal work profoundly influenced modern concepts of form in sculpture, painting, and industrial design. Born in Pestisani Gorj, on February 21, 1876, into a large family of peasant extraction, Brancusi studied art in Craiova and Bucharest before going to Paris in 1904, where he worked briefly for the noted sculptor Auguste Rodin. Brancusi's early works were influenced by Rodin and by the impressionists, but after 1908 he rapidly evolved his characteristic personal style. With the basic intention of laying bare the underlying nature of an image, he abandoned the use of live models and adapted a simplified, streamlined style. In describing the evolution of his art, he said: “One arrives at simplicity … as one approaches the real meaning of things.” Two simple organic shapes predominate in his work: the egg and the elongated cylinder. An example of the former is Sleeping Muse (1906, Museum of Art, Bucharest), in which the figure is represented simply as a stylized ovoid head. Bird in Space (1919, Museum of Modern Art, New York City, and in many other versions) is a long, graceful cylinder of polished metal, its lines reminiscent of the curve of a bird's wing. Here Brancusi refined the organic form to the point where it became almost totally abstract, a conceptual rather than an actual representation. The artist also worked in more geometric shapes. By concentrating on pure form, Brancusi freed sculpture from its 19th-century pictorialism and prepared the way for 20th-century abstract sculptors. He died in Paris on March 16, 1957. </text>
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<text>Brancusi, Constantin</text>
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<text>Brady, Mathew B. (1823?-96), American photographer, noted for his photographs of the American Civil War (1861-65). He was born in Warren County, New York. He experimented with the daguerreotype process and with other discoveries in the field of photography and in 1842 opened a portrait studio in New York City. He photographed most of the famous people of his day, including Abraham Lincoln. As official photographer of the American Civil War, Brady and a number of assistants worked from studios in wagons and traveled with the Union armies. Despite the difficulties and risks involved, they took more than 3500 pictures of battle sites and of soldiers engaged in their daily activities. Brady's collection, a part of which was purchased by the federal government in 1875, is unique in the annals of American photography, both for its magnitude and for its realism. It is the basis of pictorial histories of the Civil War. </text>
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<text>Brady, Mathew B</text>
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<text>Bradford, William (1663-1752), American printer, born in Barnwell, Leicestershire, England. With other Quakers he immigrated to Philadelphia in 1682. Three years later he established the first printing press there, and in 1690 he, William Rittenhouse (1644-1708), and others built a paper mill, the first in America, on the Schuylkill River. In 1692 Bradford was arrested and tried by the authorities for printing the work of the Scottish missionary George Keith (1638?-1716), which was condemned as “seditious libel.” Bradford was not convicted, but his press and publications were confiscated. He moved to New York in 1693 and in the same year established the first press in that colony. He was long the only printer in New York and held the office of public printer for 50 years. On October 16, 1725, he began the first newspaper in New York City, and the fifth in America, the New York Gazette. His son, Andrew Sowles Bradford (1686-1742), published in 1719 the first Pennsylvania newspaper, the American Weekly Mercury. Andrew's nephew, William Bradford (1722?-91), voiced his opposition to the Stamp Act and other British measures in the Weekly Advertiser or Pennsylvania Journal, which he established in 1742; still later, he was chosen the official printer of the Continental Congress. </text>
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<text>Bradford, William</text>
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<text>Bourke-White, Margaret (1906-71), American photographer and photojournalist, born in New York City, and graduated from Cornell University. From 1929 to 1933 she was an associate editor of Fortune magazine. In 1934 she photographed industrial sites in the USSR and produced the documentary films Eyes on Russia and Red Republic. In 1936 she joined Life magazine, reporting from Europe during World War II. Bourke-White also photographed in the rural South, South Africa, and Korea. Early works are USSR, A Portfolio of Photographs (1934) and, in collaboration with her husband, the writer Erskine Caldwell, You Have Seen Their Faces (1937) and North of the Danube (1939). Later works include Shooting the Russian War (1942), Dear Fatherland, Rest Quietly (1946), Halfway to Freedom (1949), A Report on the American Jesuits (1956) with Father John La Farge (1880-1963), and Portrait of Myself (1963). Bourke-White's photos are in many museum collections. </text>
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<text>Bourke-White, Margaret</text>
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<text>Bourdelle, (Émile) Antoine (1861-1929), French sculptor, who was one of the pioneers of 20th-century monumental sculpture. For many years an assistant to the famous sculptor Auguste Rodin, he adopted some of Rodin's powerful romanticism, combining it with deliberate references to ancient Greek sculpture in intensely dramatic poses, as in his taut bronze Hercules the Archer (1909, Art Institute of Chicago). His modeling is roughly generalized rather than sharp, frequently using fragmented torsos. </text>
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<text>Bourdelle, Antoine</text>
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<text>Boudin, Eugène Louis (1824-98), French painter of seascapes and coastal scenes. He spent most of his life in Normandy, portraying the sea resorts of the English Channel in numerous oil paintings and more than 6000 drawings and watercolors. He was one of the first artists to paint in the open air (en plein air) rather than in a studio, which is evident in his masterly portrayals of iridescent sand and water under bright, shifting sunlight. A teacher of Claude Monet, Boudin was an important influence on the impressionist painters. </text>
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<text>Boudin, Eugene Louis</text>
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<text>Boucher, François (1703-70), French painter, noted for his pastoral and mythological scenes in a graceful rococo style. Boucher, the son of a designer of lace, was born in Paris on September 29, 1703. He studied with the painter François Le Moyne (1688-1737) but was most influenced by the delicate style of his contemporary Jean Antoine Watteau. In 1723 Boucher won the Prix de Rome; he studied in Rome from 1727 to 1731. After his return to France, he created hundreds of paintings, decorative boudoir panels, tapestry designs, theater designs, and book illustrations. He became a faculty member of the Royal Academy in 1734. He designed for the Beauvais tapestry works and in 1761 became director of the Gobelins tapestries. In 1765 he was made first painter to the king, director of the Royal Academy, and designer for the Royal Porcelain Works. His success was encouraged by his patron Mme. de Pompadour, mistress to Louis XV. He painted her portrait several times. Boucher's delicate, lighthearted depictions of classical divinities and well-dressed French shepherdesses delighted the public, who considered him the most fashionable painter of his day. Examples of his work are the paintings Triumph of Venus (1740, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm) and Nude Lying on a Sofa (1752, Alte Pinakothek, Munich) and the tapestry series Loves of the Gods (1744). Boucher's sentimental, facile style was too widely imitated and fell out of favor during the rise of neoclassicism. He died in Paris on May 30, 1770. </text>
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<text> Botticelli, Sandro, real name Alessandro di Mariano dei Filipepi (1445-1510), one of the leading painters of the Florentine Renaissance. He developed a highly personal style characterized by elegance of execution, a sense of melancholy, and a strong emphasis on line; details appear as sumptuous still lifes. Botticelli was born in Florence, the son of a tanner. His nickname was derived from Botticello (“little barrel”), either the nickname of his elder brother or the name of the goldsmith to whom Sandro was first apprenticed. Later he served an apprenticeship with the painter Fra Filippo Lippi. He also worked with the painter and engraver Antonio del Pollaiuolo, from whom he gained his sense of line; he was also influenced by Andrea del Verrocchio. Botticelli had his own workshop by 1470. He spent almost all of his life working for the great families of Florence, especially the Medici. He painted portraits of them, as for example Giuliano de' Medici (1475-76, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.) and the Adoration of the Magi (1476-77, Uffizi, Florence), in which members of the Medici family appear. As part of the brilliant intellectual and artistic circle at the court of Lorenzo de' Medici, he was influenced by its Christian Neoplatonism, which tried to blend classical and Christian views. This synthesis is expressed in two larger famous panels commissioned for Medici villas and now in the Uffizi, Primavera (circa 1478) and Birth of Venus (after 1482). In these works, in which slender elegant figures form abstract linear patterns bathed in soft golden light, Venus appears allegorically as a symbol of both pagan and Christian love. Botticelli also painted religious subjects, especially panels of the Madonna, such as the Madonna of the Magnificat (1480s), Madonna of the Pomegranate (1480s), Coronation of the Virgin (1490), all in the Uffizi, and Madonna and Child with Two Saints (1485, Staatliche Museen, Berlin). Other religious works include Saint Sebastian (1473-74, Staatliche Museen) and a fresco, Saint Augustine (1480, Church of the Ognissanti, Florence). In 1481 Botticelli was one of several artists chosen to go to Rome to decorate the walls of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. There he executed the Return of Moses, the Punishment of Korah, and the Temptation of Christ. In the 1490s, when the Medici were expelled from Florence and the fanatic Dominican monk Girolamo Savonarola preached austerity and reform, Botticelli experienced a religious crisis. His subsequent works, such as the Pieta (early 1490s, Museo Poldi-Pezzoli, Milan) and especially the Mystic Nativity (1490s, National Gallery, London) and Mystic Crucifixion (circa 1496, Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts), reflect an intense religious devotion. Botticelli died in Florence on May 17, 1510. </text>
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<text>Botticelli, Sandro</text>
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<text>Borglum, (John) Gutzon de la Mothe (1871-1941), American sculptor, who carved the heads of four U.S. presidents on Mount Rushmore. Born near Bear Lake, Idaho, and trained in art in San Francisco and Paris, he specialized in the sculpture of American subjects. In 1916 he began to carve the Stone Mountain, Georgia, memorial to the Confederacy, a gigantic bas-relief, until a dispute with the authorities halted work. He worked on the Mount Rushmore National Memorial from 1927 until his death. The memorial consists of colossal heads of Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln, cut out of Mount Rushmore in the Black Hills of South Dakota. The faces, looking out from an elevation of 152 m (500 ft), are from 15 to 21 m (50 to 70 ft) high; yet they possess great realism of detail and expression. After Borglum's death, the project was completed by his son Lincoln (1912-86). </text>
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<text>Borglum, Gutzon de la Mothe</text>
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<text>Bonington, Richard Parkes (1802-28), English painter, born in Arnold, near Nottingham. He studied at the École des Beaux-Arts, Paris, and privately with Baron Antoine Jean Gros. Best known as a watercolorist, he spent much of his life in France and was one of the first painters in that country to adopt the techniques of such English landscape painters of the period as John Constable. After Bonington's death, his lyrical, atmospheric paintings strongly influenced the Barbizon school of painting in France. Included among his works are Henry IV and the Spanish Ambassador (Wallace Collection, London), Francis I and the Duchess d'Étampes (Louvre, Paris), and Coast Scene, Normandy and Roadside Halt (both in the Metropolitan Museum, New York City). </text>
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<text>Bonington, Richard Parkes</text>
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<text>Bonheur, Rosa (1822-99), French painter, born in Bordeaux, and trained in Paris under her father Raymond Bonheur (died 1849). Her first important painting, Ploughing in Nivernais (1848), was acquired by the French government for the collection of the Luxembourg Gallery, Paris. She established a reputation as one of the foremost animal painters of her day. Her best-known works are The Horse Fair (1835-55) and Weaning the Calves (1887), both in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. In 1894 she became the first woman to receive the Grand Cross of the French Legion of Honor. </text>
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<text>Bonheur, Rosa</text>
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<text>Bodoni, Giambattista (1740-1813), Italian printer and type designer, born in Saluzzo, Piedmont. Appointed by the duke of Parma to manage his printing house, Bodoni supervised the publication of elegant editions of Homer's Iliad and of other classics. He also printed a celebrated edition of the Lord's Prayer in 155 languages. Bodoni designed the first modern, Roman-style typeface, Bodoni Book. The typeface, designed about 1798, is known for the sharp contrast between its thick primary strokes and thin secondary strokes and for its thin, straight serifs. </text>
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<text>Bodoni, Giambattista</text>
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<text>Böcklin, Arnold (1827-1901), Swiss painter, whose allegorical and fantastical paintings presaged 20th-century surrealism. His early style consisted of idealized classical landscapes. In the 1870s, he turned to fantastic scenes from German legends, paralleling Richard Wagner's use of similar subjects in opera. His later works, such as Isle of the Dead (1880, Metropolitan Museum, New York City), became increasingly dreamlike and nightmarish. </text>
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<text>Bocklin, Arnold</text>
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<text>Boccioni, Umberto (1882-1916), Italian painter and sculptor, who was a leader of the futurist movement. He wrote the Technical Manifesto of Futuristic Painting (1910), in which he presented the group's revolutionary demand that artists free themselves from the past and embrace modern technological civilization, with its movement, speed, and dynamism. In his paintings, such as Dynamism of a Cyclist (circa 1913, G. Mattioli Collection, Milan), he conveyed a sense of movement by showing several stages of one kinetic sequence. He used complementary colors to create a glittering effect. In his sculpture Boccioni attempted to illustrate the interaction of a moving object with the space that surrounded it. </text>
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<text>Boccioni, Umberto</text>
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<text>Blakelock, Ralph Albert (1847-1919), American painter, born in New York City. Largely self-trained, Blakelock at first painted forest scenes and American Indian life based on a tour of the West (1869-72). Subsequent works—melancholy landscapes of dark trees against dusky or moonlit skies, built up in thick layers of pigment—are considered masterpieces. Examples are Sunset (National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.) and Brook by Moonlight (circa 1885, Toledo Art Museum). Blakelock's work was long unappreciated, and the impoverished artist suffered from mental illness, for which he was hospitalized (1899-1916). He was unaware of public recognition when it finally came. </text>
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<text>Blakelock, Ralph Albert</text>
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<text>Blake, William (1757-1827), English poet, painter, and engraver, who created a unique form of illustrated verse; his poetry, inspired by mystical vision, is among the most original lyric and prophetic in the language. Blake, the son of a hosier, was born November 28, 1757, in London, where he lived most of his life. Largely self-taught, he was, however, widely read, and his poetry shows the influence of the German mystic Jakob Boehme, for example, and of Swedenborgianism. As a child, Blake wanted to become a painter. He was sent to drawing school and at the age of 14 was apprenticed to James Basire (1730-1802), an engraver. After his 7-year term was over, he studied briefly at the Royal Academy, but he rebelled against the aesthetic doctrines of its president, Sir Joshua Reynolds. Blake did, however, later establish friendships with such academicians as John Flaxman and Henry Fuseli, whose work may have influenced him. In 1784 he set up a printshop; although it failed after a few years, for the rest of his life Blake eked out a living as an engraver and illustrator. His wife helped him print the illuminated poetry for which he is remembered today. Early Poetry Blake began writing poetry at the age of 12, and his first printed work, Poetical Sketches (1783), is a collection of youthful verse. Amid its traditional, derivative elements are hints of his later innovative style and themes. As with all his poetry, this volume reached few contemporary readers. Blake's most popular poems have always been Songs of Innocence (1789). These lyrics—fresh, direct observations—are notable for their eloquence. In 1794, disillusioned with the possibility of human perfection, Blake issued Songs of Experience, employing the same lyric style and much of the same subject matter as in Songs of Innocence. Both series of poems take on deeper resonances when read in conjunction. Innocence and Experience, “the two contrary states of the human soul,” are contrasted in such companion pieces as “The Lamb” and “The Tyger.” Blake's subsequent poetry develops the implication that true innocence is impossible without experience, transformed by the creative force of the human imagination. Blake as Artist As was to be Blake's custom, he illustrated the Songs with designs that demand an imaginative reading of the complicated dialogue between word and picture. His method of illuminated printing is not completely understood. The most likely explanation is that he wrote the words and drew the pictures for each poem on a copper plate, using some liquid impervious to acid, which when applied left text and illustration in relief. Ink or a color wash was then applied, and the printed picture was finished by hand in watercolors. Blake has been called a preromantic because he rejected neoclassical literary style and modes of thought. His graphic art too defied 18th-century conventions. Always stressing imagination over reason, he felt that ideal forms should be constructed not from observations of nature but from inner visions. His rhythmically patterned linear style is also a repudiation of the painterly academic style. Blake's attenuated, fantastic figures go back, instead, to the medieval tomb statuary he copied as an apprentice and to Mannerist sources. The influence of Michelangelo is especially evident in the radical foreshortening and exaggerated muscular form in one of his best-known illustrations, popularly known as The Ancient of Days, the frontispiece to his poem Europe, a Prophecy (1794). Much of Blake's painting was on religious subjects: illustrations for the work of John Milton, his favorite poet (although he rejected Milton's Puritanism), for John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, and for the Bible, including 21 illustrations to the Book of Job. Among his secular illustrations were those for an edition of Thomas Gray's poems and the 537 watercolors for Edward Young's Night Thoughts—only 43 of which were published. The Prophetic BooksIn his so-called Prophetic Books, a series of longer poems written from 1789 on, Blake created a complex personal mythology and invented his own symbolic characters to reflect his social concerns. A true original in thought and expression, he declared in one of these poems, “I must create a system or be enslaved by another man's.” Blake was a nonconformist radical who numbered among his associates such English freethinkers as Thomas Paine and Mary Wollstonecraft. Poems such as The French Revolution (1791), America, a Prophecy (1793), Visions of the Daughters of Albion (1793), and Europe, a Prophecy (1794) express his condemnation of 18th-century political and social tyranny. Theological tyranny is the subject of The Book of Urizen (1794), and the dreadful cycle set up by the mutual exploitation of the sexes is vividly described in “The Mental Traveller” (circa 1803). Among the Prophetic Books is a prose work, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1790-93), which develops Blake's idea that “without Contraries is no progression.” It includes the “Proverbs of Hell,” such as “The tygers of wrath are wiser than the horses of instruction.” In 1800 Blake moved to the seacoast town of Felpham, where he lived and worked until 1803 under the patronage of William Hayley (1745-1820). There he experienced profound spiritual insights that prepared him for his mature work, the great visionary epics written and etched between about 1804 and 1820. Milton (1804-08), Vala, or The Four Zoas (that is, aspects of the human soul, 1797; rewritten after 1800), and Jerusalem (1804-20) have neither traditional plot, characters, rhyme, nor meter; the rhetorical free-verse lines demand new modes of reading. They envision a new and higher kind of innocence, the human spirit triumphant over reason. Other WorksBlake's writings also include An Island in the Moon (1784), a rollicking satire on events in his early life; a collection of letters; and a notebook containing sketches and some shorter poems dating between 1793 and 1818. It was called the Rossetti Manuscript, because it was acquired in 1847 by the English poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti, one of the first to recognize Blake's genius. Blake's final years, spent in great poverty, were cheered by the admiring friendship of a group of younger artists. He died in London, August 12, 1827, leaving uncompleted a cycle of drawings inspired by Dante's Divine Comedy. </text>
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<text>Bishop, Isabel (1902-88), American 20th-century artist, whose paintings and drawings are known for their cool, realistic depiction of human figures. Although her early work of the 1920s shows some influence of cubist and geometric styles, her mature work owes more to the American Ashcan school of the early 1900s and to the street scenes of Reginald Marsh. Her portrayals of New York City life are straightforward, highly realistic, and done with superb drawing skill. One of her best-known works, Waiting (1935, Whitney Museum, New York City), recalls 17th-century old master drawings in its rapid expressive strokes, mastery of line, and sharp contrasts of light and dark tones. </text>
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<text>Bishop, Isabel</text>
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<text> Bingham, George Caleb (1811-79), American painter of genre scenes. He was born in Augusta County, Virginia, but lived mainly in Missouri, where the frontier life inspired his work. Except for a few months in art schools in Philadelphia in 1838 and Düsseldorf, Germany, in the 1850s, Bingham was self-taught. He painted portraits before turning to quiet landscapes and the realistic genre scenes for which he is best known. Although he conveyed the lively, homely quality of pioneer life, he was also concerned with carefully controlled composition and the effects of light. Many of Bingham's works, such as the famous Fur Traders Descending the Missouri (1845, Metropolitan Museum, New York City) and Raftsmen Playing Cards (1847, City Art Museum, Saint Louis, Missouri), are marked by a classical serenity and clarity despite their rough-hewn subjects. Bingham also held several offices in the Missouri state government. </text>
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<text>Bingham, George Caleb</text>
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<text>Bill, Max (1908- ), Swiss painter, sculptor, architect, and graphic designer, who was one of the most versatile exponents of the avant-garde principles of the Bauhaus school in post-World War I Germany. His insistence on a mathematical basis for all art is reflected in his paintings, marked by precise, often geometrical designs and carefully planned color relationships. His graphic and industrial designs are strongly functional. In sculpture, from 1935 to 1953, he produced in polished metal many variations on the endless loop. He influenced European art and industrial design as a lecturer and director of schools in Zürich and Ulm and as an organizer of art exhibitions, particularly those of concrete art in 1944 and 1960. </text>
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<text>Bill, Max</text>
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<text> Bihzad or Behzad (died 1535), Persian painter of manuscripts, whose work had a profound influence on later generations of Islamic painters. Born Ostad Kamal od-din Bihzad in Herat (now in Afghanistan), he was taught by his guardian, the painter Mirak Naqqash. Bihzad worked in the royal library of the Timurid rulers, where an academy of scholars, calligraphers, and artists codified, copied, and illustrated classical works. In 1510, under the patronage of the new Safavid dynasty, Bihzad accompanied the court to Tabriz, Persia (now Iran). There, as director of the royal library after 1522, he influenced Persian painting and, through his works and his students, that of India and Turkey as well. Of the many works completed in the style of Bihzad, scholars ascribe 32 to him. All were produced at Herat between 1486 and 1495. In these illustrations richly clad courtiers move amid palaces, flowering gardens, and mountain landscapes. Bihzad developed new, subtle color relationships and a highly refined compositional skill. His genius won him the epithet marvel of his age. </text>
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<text>Bihzad</text>
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<text>Bierstadt, Albert (1830-1902), American painter of grandiose scenes of the American West. Born in Solingen, Germany, Bierstadt was raised in New Bedford, Massachusetts. He studied (1853- 57) painting in Düsseldorf, Germany, and Rome and thereafter worked chiefly in New York City. His vast, majestic, studio panoramas of the Rocky Mountains, more realistic than the landscapes of the earlier Hudson River school, were based on sketches from nature. Many were the result of his trip to the West with a surveying team in 1859. His works, popular in their day and now the subject of revived interest, include Rocky Mountains (1863) and Merced River, Yosemite Valley (1866), both in the Metropolitan Museum, New York City. </text>
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<text>Bierstadt, Albert</text>
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<text>Bewick, Thomas (1753-1828), English wood engraver, born near Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland. He became apprentice to and, in 1777, partner of an engraver in Newcastle. Bewick illustrated A General History of Quadrupeds (1790), which popularized natural history and led to the publication of History of British Birds (1797 and 1804), also illustrated by him. Among his other works is an illustrated Fables of Æsop (1818). Bewick's depictions of animals showed his great understanding of their nature and habitat, and his technique of white line on a black background revived wood engraving as an art. </text>
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<text>Bewick, Thomas</text>
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<text> Bertoia, Harry (1915-78), Italian-born American sculptor and furniture designer. He immigrated to the United States in 1930 and studied (1937-39) at the Cranbrook Academy of Art in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, subsequently becoming one of its teachers. In 1950 he began to work with the renowned design firm of Knoll Associates, for which he produced furniture combining elegance with practicality, such as the series of wire-shell chairs that won him numerous design awards. Bertoia's sculptures were usually in cast-metal tree shapes or in glittering bundles of metal rods; of the latter, many were tuned to emit musical sounds when the rods were struck. </text>
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<text>Bertoia, Harry</text>
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<text>Berruguete, Alonso (circa 1488-1561), Spanish sculptor and painter, considered by his contemporaries the outstanding artist of Renaissance Spain. Born in Paredes de Nava, he studied first under his father, Pedro Berruguete (circa 1450-1504), and after 1504 in Florence under Michelangelo. After his return to Spain in 1520 he was revered as the pioneer of the High Renaissance in his native country. In 1523 he was named court sculptor, painter, and court chamberlain. Berruguete's most celebrated work is 35 choir stalls (1539-1548) for the Cathedral of Toledo. On the backs of the stalls are wooden reliefs depicting biblical events; above the cornice are patriarchs, prophets, and saints in alabaster. His other works include the retable of the Colegio Mayor de Santiago (1529-31) in Salamanca, with eight large pictures from the life of Christ, and the alabaster altar of the Holy Trinity (1538) in the Cathedral of Jaca. One of his best sculptures is the tomb of Cardinal Tavera in Toledo. </text>
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<text>Berruguete, Alonso</text>
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<text> Bernini, Gian Lorenzo (1598-1680), the single most important artistic talent of the Italian baroque. Although most significant as a sculptor, he was also highly gifted as an architect; painter; draftsman; designer of stage sets, fireworks displays, and funeral trappings; and playwright. His art is the quintessence of high baroque energy and robustness. In sculpture his ability to suggest textures of skin or cloth as well as to capture emotion and movement was uncanny. Bernini reformed a number of sculptural genres, including the portrait bust, the fountain, and the tomb. His influence was widespread throughout the 17th and 18th centuries and was felt by such masters as Pierre Puget (1620-94) from France, the Italian Pietro Bracci (1700-73), and the German Andreas Schlüter. The life of Bernini was dominated by his work, and his biography is defined by the immense number of projects he undertook. His career developed almost entirely in Rome, although he was born in Naples, December 7, 1598. His father, Pietro Bernini (1562-1629), a talented sculptor of the late Mannerist style, was his son's first teacher. Young Gian Lorenzo soon surpassed his father in excellence, however, as is known from the principal sources of information on Bernini, the biographies by Filippo Baldinucci (1624-96) in 1682 and by the artist's son Domenico (flourished 1685-1722) in 1713. Many of Bernini's early sculptures were inspired by Hellenistic art. The Goat Amalthea Nursing the Infant Zeus and a Young Satyr (redated 1609, Galleria Borghese, Rome) typifies the classical taste of the youthful sculptor. Group sculptures by earlier masters such as Giambologna were noted for their Mannerist multiple views. Bernini's groups of the 1620s, however, such as the Abduction of Proserpina (1621-22, Galleria Borghese, Rome) present the spectator with a single primary view while sacrificing none of the drama inherent in the scene. From the 1620s also date Bernini's first architectural projects, the facade for the church of Santa Bibiana (1624-26), Rome, and the creation of the magnificent baldachin (1624-33), or altar canopy, over the high altar of Saint Peter's Basilica. The latter commission was given to Bernini by Pope Urban VIII, the first of seven pontiffs for whom he worked. This project, a masterful feat of engineering, architecture, and sculpture, was the first of a number of monumental undertakings for St. Peter's. Bernini later created the tombs (1628-47 and 1671-78, respectively; St. Peter's Basilica) of Urban VIII and Alexander VII (1599-1667) that, in their use of active three-dimensional figures, differ markedly from the purely architectural approach to the sepulchral monument taken by previous artists. Bernini's immense Cathedra Petri (Chair of Saint Peter, 1657-66), in the apse of St. Peter's, employs marble, gilt bronze, and stucco in a splendid crescendo of motion, made all the more dramatic by the golden oval window in its center that becomes the focal point of the entire basilica. Bernini was the first sculptor to realize the dramatic potential of light in a sculptural complex. This was even more fully realized in his famous masterpiece Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1645-52, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome), in which the sun's rays, coming from an unseen source, illuminate the swooning saint and the smiling angel about to pierce her heart with a golden arrow. Bernini's numerous busts also carry an analogous sense of persuasive dramatic realism, be they allegorical busts such as the Damned Soul and Blessed Soul (both circa 1619, Palazzo di Spagna, Rome), or portraits such as those of Cardinal Scipione Borghese (1576-1633) (1632, Galleria Borghese) or Louis XIV of France (1665, Palace of Versailles). Bernini's secular architecture included designs for several palaces: Palazzo Ludovisi (now Palazzo Montecitorio, 1650) and Palazzo Chigi (1664), in Rome, and an unexecuted design for the Louvre presented to Louis XIV in 1665, when Bernini spent five months in Paris. He did not begin to design churches until he was 60 years old, but his three efforts in ecclesiastical architecture are significant. His church at Castelgandolfo (1658-61) employs a Greek cross, and his church at Ariccia (1662-64), a circle plan. His third church is his greatest. Sant' Andrea al Quirinale (1658-70) in Rome was constructed on an oval plan with an ovoid porch extending beyond the facade, echoing the interior rhythms of the building. The interior, decorated with dark, multicolored marble, has a dramatic oval dome of white and gold. Also dating from the 1660s are the Scala Regia (Royal Staircase, 1663-66), connecting the papal apartments in the Vatican Palace to St. Peter's, and the magnificent Piazza San Pietro (designed 1667), framing the approach to the basilica in a dynamic ovular space formed by two vast semicircular colonnades. Bernini's most outstanding fountain group is in the spectacular Fountain of the Four Rivers (1648-51) in the Piazza Navona. Bernini remained a vital and active artist virtually up to the last day of his life, November 28, 1680. His final work, Bust of the Savior (Chrysler Museum, Norfolk, Virginia), presents a withdrawn and restrained image of Christ indicative of what is now known to have been Bernini's calm and resigned attitude toward death. </text>
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<text>Bernini, Gian Lorenzo</text>
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<text> Benton, Thomas Hart (1889-1975), regionalist American painter, known for his vigorous, color-splashed murals of the 1930s, mostly of rollicking scenes from the rural past of the American South and Midwest. Benton was born in Neosho, Missouri, and named after his granduncle, the famed pre-American Civil War senator. He studied at the Chicago Art Institute and then spent three years in Paris. Living in New York City after 1912, Benton gradually developed a rugged naturalism that affirmed traditional rural values. By the 1930s he was riding a tide of popular acclaim along with his fellow regionalists Grant Wood and John Steuart Curry. Benton's masterpiece, the mural Modern America (1931, New School for Social Research, New York City), breathes optimism with its sweeping panoramas of earthy, heroic figures and swirling color. Benton returned to Missouri, taught at the Kansas City Art Institute, and continued to paint—both panels and murals. His mural in the state capitol in Jefferson City (1935) stirred protests because of its open portrayals of some of the seamier facets of Missouri's past. Other Missouri murals are in the Truman Memorial Library, Independence (1961), and in Joplin (1973). </text>
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<text>Benton, Thomas Hart</text>
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<text>Bemelmans, Ludwig (1898-1962), American writer and artist, born in Austria. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1914. For about a decade he worked as a busboy and then as assistant banquet manager in a New York City hotel; his Life Class (1938) and Hotel Splendide (1939) are based on his experiences during this period. Among his other writings, satirical and humorous, are My War with the United States (1937) and On Board Noah’s Ark (1962). He is also widely known for his books for children, notably Madeline (1939), tales in verse about a French girl. He illustrated most of his works in a distinctive style using vivid watercolors and heavy black outlines.</text>
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<text>Bemelmans, Ludwig</text>
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<text>Bellows, George Wesley (1882-1925), American realist painter of the Ashcan school. He was born in Columbus, Ohio, and educated at Ohio State University. He studied with the realist painter Robert Henri, who strongly influenced him, and later taught in New York City and Chicago. Bellows' early work, in a vigorous style, chiefly depicted scenes of urban life, such as his most famous painting, A Stag at Sharkey's (1913, Cleveland Museum of Art). He received rapid recognition, becoming an unusually young member of the National Academy of Design in 1913. Bellows concentrated on portraits, such as Edith Clavell, the British nurse (1918, Museum of Fine Arts, Springfield, Massachusetts), Jean and Anna (1920, Buffalo Fine Arts Academy), Emma and Her Children, (1923, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), and on landscapes, such as Up the Hudson (1908, Metropolitan Museum, New York City), and Gramercy Park (1920, Whitney Museum, New York City). He produced lithographs of such fine quality that he inspired a renewed interest in the medium. </text>
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<text>Bellows, George Wesley</text>
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<text>Bellotto, Bernardo (1720-80), Italian painter, who worked principally in Dresden, Vienna, Munich, and Warsaw. The nephew and pupil of the famous Venetian painter Canaletto, he continued his uncle's tradition of crystalline view paintings in his broad cityscapes and street scenes, such as View of the Tiber with Castel Sant'Angelo (circa 1740, Metropolitan Museum, New York City). His pictures are noted for their accurate depiction of details and have been used in the reconstruction of historic buildings, most notably in war-damaged Dresden and Warsaw. </text>
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<text>Bellotto, Bernardo</text>
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<text>Bellini, Jacopo (circa 1400-c. 1470), Venetian painter, founder of an artistic dynasty that included his sons Gentile and Giovanni Bellini and son-in-law Andrea Mantegna. A tinsmith's son, Jacopo was apprenticed to the celebrated International Gothic painter Gentile da Fabriano and may have accompanied Gentile to Florence in the 1420s. He was certainly at the court of Ferrara in 1441, where he competed with Pisanello in painting the duke's portrait, and won. Most of his career, however, was spent in Venice, where he executed many important paintings for churches, religious confraternities, and the Venetian state. These have all perished, and Jacopo is known as a painter only by a few smaller works, some, such as The Annunciation (Sant' Alessandro, Brescia) very lovely, although still closely linked with the Gothic past. More adventurous are the drawings preserved in two notebooks (Louvre, Paris; British Museum, London). These, displaying a range hardly equaled in any contemporary's surviving output, couple the new Renaissance interests of perspective and realistic observation with a vein of narrative and architectural fantasy to astonishing effect. They make understandable Jacopo's position as a progenitor of the Renaissance in North Italy. </text>
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<text>Bellini, Jacopo</text>
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<text> Bellini, Giovanni (circa 1430-1516), Venetian painter, who was the presiding genius of early Renaissance painting in Venice, and an artist of world rank. He was the son of Jacopo and (probably younger) brother of Gentile Bellini Born in Venice, Giovanni Bellini began as an assistant in his father's workshop and continued painting into his mid-80s, gaining steadily in achievement and recognition. His first phase as an artist was strongly influenced by his formidable brother-in-law, the Paduan painter Andrea Mantegna, from whom he took a sculpturesque figure style, a sense for the potential eloquence of contour line, and occasional compositional ideas in the early Agony in the Garden (1460s, National Gallery, London). These are, however, infused with Bellini's own subtle perception of color and light, an exceptional sensitivity to the natural landscape, and a human empathy far more direct and tender than Mantegna's. These personal components of Bellini's style, which became fundamental to the character of Venetian Renaissance painting as a whole, found expanded scope and an altered form in his painting of the 1470s. Flemish painting and, in 1475, Antonello da Messina's paintings, showed Bellini the possibilities of the oil medium, which he used from then on in place of tempera. His color took on added depth, and he explored the interactions of color, light, air, and substance still more fully. As a result, the distinction between solids and space became less clear; air mediated between them; contour line gradually disappeared, to be replaced by transitions of light and shadow. Saint Francis (circa 1480, Frick Collection, New York City) represents an early stage in this process; it is well advanced in two dated pictures of the 1480s: Madonna of the Trees (1487, Accademia, Venice) and Madonna with Saints (1488, Church of the Frari, Venice). By about 1500 it had ushered in Bellini's splendid late style. The Saint Francis also represents an important innovation of Bellini's in these years—paintings in which mood and meaning are conveyed at least as much by landscape as by figures. In the landscapes themselves, he combined a Flemish-inspired minuteness of brilliantly rendered detail with an Italian grasp of general principles as no previous artist has done. Equally significant in setting precedents were a series of monumental altarpieces portraying the Madonna enthroned among saints. In these, figures, space, light, architecture, and sometimes landscape were balanced with seemingly effortless perfection to achieve a complex but harmonious image of serene grandeur. Such paintings as, for example, Madonna with Doge Barbarigo (1488, Santa Maria dei Frari, Venice), are pioneer exemplars of the High Renaissance style. The latest of the series, Madonna with Saints (1505, San Zaccaria, Venice), typifies Bellini's late style. Complex modulations of color establish a mellow overall tone within which the figures, their surroundings, light, and air seem inseparable—merely different aspects of a single identity. Forms are ample but less dense than before; paint is delicately applied to give their edges and surfaces a hazy indistinctness. The Feast of the Gods (1514, National Gallery, Washington, D.C.), the landscape of which was devised by Titian, shows Bellini, still flexible and inventive in his 80s, turning to classical and pagan subject matter shortly before his death in 1516 in Venice. Bellini's historical importance is immense. In his 60-year evolution as an artist, he brought Venetian painting from provincial backwardness into the forefront of Renaissance and the mainstream of Western art. Moreover, his personal orientations predetermined the special nature of Venice's contribution to that mainstream. These include his luminous colorism, his deep response to the natural world, and his warm humanity. </text>
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<text>Bellini, Giovanni</text>
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<text>Bellini, Gentile (circa 1429-1506), Venetian painter, son of Jacopo and (probably elder) brother of Giovanni Bellini. A much honored painter during his lifetime, Gentile was sent by the Venetian state to Constantinople in 1479 in response to Sultan Muhammad II's request for a good portraitist. Some of his most attractive works date from his year's sojourn there, including a portrait of the sultan (National Gallery, London) and a watercolor portrait of a boy scribe (Gardner Museum, Boston), in which he adapts to Middle Eastern modes. Gentile was best known for his honest, searching portraits of the Venetian doges and for his large-scale narrative paintings. Most of the latter were destroyed by a fire in the Doges' Palace in 1579, but three Miracles of the True Cross (Accademia, Venice) survive to establish their character. Set in contemporary Venice, they are pictorially somewhat dry but valuable as circumstantially accurate records of the city and its people in Gentile's time. </text>
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<text>Bellini, Gentile</text>
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<text>Beerbohm, Sir Max (1872-1956), English essayist, critic, and caricaturist, half brother of the actor Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree, born in London. He began his literary career with contributions to The Yellow Book, a quarterly magazine. A prominent figure in London life, he knew everybody and caricatured everybody, emphasizing the eccentricities of British social, political, and literary personalities in a long series of witty drawings. He was knighted in 1939. Except for his one novel, Zuleika Dobson (1911), a satire on life at the University of Oxford, Beerbohm's books are mainly compilations of his periodical and newspaper articles. Important among these are the collections of essays The Happy Hypocrite (1897) and And Even Now (1920); parodies of authors of his day, A Christmas Garland (1912); pictorial caricatures, The Poet's Corner (1904) and Rossetti and His Circle (1922); radio lectures delivered between 1935 and 1945, Mainly on the Air (1947); and articles on the London stage, Around Theatres (reissued in 1953). </text>
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<text>Beerbohm, Sir Max</text>
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<text>Beckmann, Max (1884-1950), German expressionist painter and printmaker, whose allegorical works convey his pessimistic view of society. Born in Leipzig, he was trained at the Weimar Academy of Art and worked at first in an impressionist style. His horrifying experience as a medical corpsman in World War I led him to produce highly dramatic and energetic paintings characterized by heavy outlines, areas of harsh color, and an unrelenting savagery. Like the work of the New Objectivity movement, they expressed social criticism of postwar Germany. Beckmann's dismay at the rise of the Nazi party in the 1930s was reflected in nine triptychs, huge, grimly realistic figural compositions in strident hues, such as Departure (1932-33, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). Departure was painted just after the Nazis ousted Beckmann from his art professorship at the Städel School of Art in Frankfurt as a “degenerate.” In 1937 he immigrated to Amsterdam, and in 1947 he went to the United States. </text>
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<text>Beckmann, Max</text>
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<text>Beccafumi, Domenico (1486-1551), Italian Mannerist painter and sculptor, who worked in Siena. Originally named Domenico di Pace, and also called Il Mecherino, he took the name Beccafumi from his patron, a wealthy Sienese who sent him to study in Siena and Rome. Beccafumi designed 35 splendid mosaics (1517-46) for the pavement in Siena Cathedral, each mosaic depicting a different Old Testament scene. Beccafumi's best-known paintings are the ceiling frescoes of the Palazzo Publico in Siena and an altarpiece in the same building. His last years were devoted principally to sculpture, particularly to 18 bronze figures (circa 1548) of angels and 12 marble figures (c. 1548) of the apostles in Siena Cathedral. Beccafumi was also a talented engraver and worked in both copper and wood. </text>
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<text>Beccafumi, Domenico</text>
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<text>Beaton, Sir Cecil Walter Hardy (1904-80), English photographer and theatrical designer. His early portrait photographs, as well as his fashion photographs for Vogue magazine, broke away from the stilted, unimaginative style of the day to espouse an original, innovative manner that relied on unusual settings, poses, and backgrounds. His later work was more conventional, especially after he became the official photographer of the British royal family. Beaton also designed stage sets and costumes—notably for the stage and film versions of the musical My Fair Lady—and published several volumes of photographs and memoirs. </text>
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<text>Beaton, Sir Cecil Walter Hardy</text>
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<text>Beard, Daniel Carter (1850-1941), American artist, author, and naturalist, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, and trained at the Art Students League in New York City. He illustrated books and magazines and edited the periodical Recreation. Enthusiastic about outdoor life, he founded the first scouting society for boys in the U.S. Known as the Sons of Daniel Boone, the organization became part of the Boy Scouts of America. Beard later became national commissioner of the Boy Scouts of America. Among his writings are American Boys’ Handy Book (1882, 1903), Boy Pioneers and Sons of Daniel Boone (1909), and Do It Yourself (1925).</text>
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<text>Beard, Daniel Carter</text>
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<text>Bassano, family of Venetian painters. The most important member, Jacopo da Ponte, called Jacopo Bassano (1510-92), born in Bassano del Grappa, painted portraits and biblical and mythological scenes. His early Mannerist works used elongated figures and brilliant color. Later work, influenced by Titian and Tintoretto, was darker and more dramatic, as in the Crucifixion (1592, Museo Civico, Treviso). His sons Francesco (1549-92) and Leandro (1558-1622) were genre painters. </text>
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<text>Bassano</text>
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<text>Baskin, Leonard (1922- ), American sculptor and graphic artist, who attempts to communicate moral ideas through his portrayals of the human figure. Many of the details of his figures—flaccid faces, obese or ugly nude bodies, spindly legs—illustrate what he considers the spoiled and debauched condition of humankind. In contrasting works, he portrays, through strong, sensitive modeling, figures who radiate unspoiled dignity and uprightness. The Gehenna Press, which he founded and operated for over 25 years, produced fine illustrated books, many of them containing Baskin's own wood engravings. From 1953 to 1973 he taught sculpture and printmaking at Smith College. </text>
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<text>Baskin, Leonard</text>
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<text>Barye, Antoine Louis (1795-1875), foremost French sculptor of animals in bronze. He was born in Paris, the son of a goldsmith, and studied sculpture and worked for a goldsmith. His early pieces, such as Lion Crushing a Serpent (1832, Louvre, Paris), embodied a romantic taste for violence and were well received by the salons until the large works were rejected in 1837. Working commercially thereafter, he produced small wild-animal groups based on direct observation, which are masterpieces of accuracy in anatomy, movement, and character. Also inspired by classical mythology, Barye sculpted Theseus Fighting the Minotaur (1846-48, Louvre). </text>
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<text>Barye, Antoine Louis</text>
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<text>Bartolommeo, Fra (1475-1517), Florentine painter of the High Renaissance. His original name was Baccio della Porta. Born in Florence and trained there under the painter Cosimo Roselli (1439-1507), he was influenced by the grimly fanatic Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola to give up art and enter the Dominican order in 1500. Four years later Bartolommeo began to paint again, producing the Vision of St. Bernard (1504, Accademia, Florence). After a trip to Venice in 1508, where he was strongly influenced by Giovanni Bellini's mastery of color, he became one of the chief exponents of color composition in the Florentine school. From this period date such grave, monumental altarpieces as the Eternal Father with Mary Magdalene and Saint Catherine of Siena (1509, Pinacoteca, Lucca) and the Marriage of St. Catherine (1511, Louvre, Paris; and 1512, Accademia), many done in collaboration with his friend Mariotto Albertinelli (1474-1515). Bartolommeo's later works, such as the Madonna della Misericordia (1515, Pinacoteca), reflect the majestic High Renaissance style of Michelangelo and Raphael, which he had encountered on a trip to Rome in 1514. </text>
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<text>Bartolommeo, Fra</text>
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<text>Barnard, George Grey (1863-1938), American sculptor, born in Bellfonte, Pennsylvania, and trained at the Art Institute of Chicago and in Paris. He created figures and groups, chiefly in marble, in a style influenced by Michelangelo and the French sculptor Auguste Rodin that combined elements of the heroic and the realistic. Notable works include Struggle of Two Natures in Man (1894), The Elements (1894), The Broken Law (1911), and the realistic bronze Abraham Lincoln (1917). </text>
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<text>Barnard, George Grey</text>
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<text>Balla, Giacomo (1871-1958), Italian painter, who was one of the principal members of the Italian futurist movement. He began his career as a realistic painter but became attracted to the symbolic futurist style in 1910, when he signed the Technical Manifesto of Futuristic Painting. In works such as the delightful Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash (Leash in Motion) (1912, Museum of Modern Art, New York City), Balla tried to show simultaneously movement and speed, which the futurists considered the essence of modern civilization. Balla returned to representational painting in the 1930s. </text>
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<text>Balla, Giacomo</text>
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<text>Baldung-Grien, Hans (circa 1484-1545), German Renaissance painter and draftsman, who was considered one of the most original artists of the period. He was born in Weyersheim, Alsace, and began his career as an apprentice of Albrecht Dürer. He spent his working life in Strassburg (Strasbourg) and in Freiburg; his alterpiece The Coronation of the Virgin (1516), in Freiburg, is considered is masterpiece. Baldung's style was realistic yet highly imaginative and individualistic. He has a marked affinity for the color green, and many of his religious scenes, are bathed in a weird, supernatural glow. A series of puzzling allegorical and mythological works, exemplified by Death Kissing a Maiden (1517, Public Art Collection, Basel), involve the motif of a female nude threatened by a qrotesque skeleton. Baldung's numerous portraits are known for their sharp characterizations. He also produced many drawings, woodcuts, etchings, and stained-glass objects. </text>
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<text>Baldung-Grien, Hans</text>
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<text>Baldovinetti, Alesso (1425?-99), Italian painter, probably born in Florence. He was influenced by the Florentine painters Domenico Veneziano and Piero della Francesca. Baldovinetti painted frescoes in a charming, finely detailed, late medieval style. In his Nativity (1460-62), a fresco in the church of SS. Annunziata, Florence, he included one of the earliest landscapes of the Arno Valley. Baldovinetti also painted on banners, shields, and chests, created stained-glass designs, and revived the art of mosaic, in which he was a recognized master. </text>
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<text>Baldovinetti, Alesso</text>
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<text>Bacon, Francis (1909-92), Irish-born British painter, whose highly individual, expressionistic style, based on images of terror and outrage, made him one of the most original of 20th-century artists. He was born in Dublin and settled in London in the late 1920s. Largely self-taught, he began to paint full time after World War II. In paintings such as Head Surrounded by Sides of Beef (Study After Vel√°zquez) (1954, Art Institute of Chicago) and a 1952 series depicting snarling dogs, Bacon attempted, by the use of bizarre or sadistic subject matter, to shock the viewer into an awareness of cruelty and violence. In much of his later work he concentrated on a series of huge triptychs relating to the crucifixion, with mutilated male figures set in nightmarish sealed rooms, as in Three Studies for a Crucifixion (1962, Guggenheim Museum, New York City). </text>
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<text>Bacon, Francis</text>
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card_10096.xml
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<text>Avery, Milton (1893-1965), American painter. One of the few American masters of figure painting during the 1930s and '40s, he turned to landscapes and seascapes later in his career. His large, uncluttered canvases, such as Seated Girl with Dog (1944, R. R. Neuberger Collection, New York City), are characterized by broad flat planes of carefully keyed colors. His work forms a link between the collages of Henri Matisse and the color-field paintings of American artists of the 1950s and '60s, such as Mark Rothko. </text>
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<text>Avery, Milton</text>
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card_9790.xml
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<text>Avedon, Richard (1923- ), American fashion and portrait photographer, whose elegant, innovative fashion work soon brought him international renown, as did his sharply focused, bluntly realistic protrait photographs of presidents, writers, and celebrities. Born in New York City, Avedon was trained as a photographer in the United States Merchant Marine in World War II. He began his career in fashion photography in 1945 with Harper's Bazaar, switching to Vogue magazine in 1966. A retrospective exhibition of his work was mounted in 1978 at New York City's Metropolitan Museum of Art. </text>
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<text>Avedon, Richard</text>
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card_9597.xml
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<text> Audubon, John James (1785-1851), American naturalist, ornithologist, and artist, noted for his realistic portrayals of American wildlife. The National Audubon Society was founded in his honor. Audubon was born on April 26, 1785, in Les Cayes, Santo Domingo (now Haiti), the son of a French naval officer who had served in the American Revolution. In 1789 his father took him to France, where he attended a military school and then studied drawing under the neoclassical painter Jacques Louis David. At the age of 18 Audubon returned to America and settled on a farm near Philadelphia. He devoted himself to a study of natural history, especially to making drawings of American birds. In 1808 he established a general store in Louisville, Kentucky, and later in Henderson, Kentucky. Neither venture was successful. During this period he continued to draw birds. In about 1820 Audubon decided to make the painting of American birds his lifework. By 1826 he had enough drawings to go to England to seek a publisher. Exhibitions of his drawings in Liverpool and Edinburgh were successful, and in 1827 he began the publication of his masterpiece, The Birds of America. The work, completed in 1838, consists of 435 hand-colored folio plates depicting 1065 birds life-size. In 1831 Audubon, with the Scottish naturalist William MacGillivray (1796-1852), began to write a companion volume, The Ornithological Biography (5 vol., 1831-39), describing the characters and habits of the birds he had painted. Between 1840 and 1844 the two books were combined and published as seven octavo volumes, with the drawings reduced in size, under the title The Birds of America. Of the original folio edition, it is estimated that only 175 sets are currently in existence. In 1841 Audubon settled on a rural estate, now Audubon Park, on the Hudson River in New York City. With his sons and the naturalist John Bachman (1790-1874), Audubon began about 1840 the preparation of The Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America (1845-54), containing 150 folio plates, which was completed and published after his death on January 27, 1851. </text>
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<text>Audubon, John James</text>
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card_9454.xml
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<text> Arp, Jean or Hans (1887-1966), avant-garde French sculptor, painter, and poet, born September 16, 1887, in Strasbourg. Arp studied art in Weimar and Paris between 1905 and 1909 and then painted in Switzerland for several years. By 1912 he had become associated with the Blaue Reiter (Blue Rider), a group of expressionist artists in Munich. Arp's work during the 1915-16 period consisted of angularly patterned, totally abstract tapestries and drawings. In 1916 Arp helped found the revolutionary Dadaist school of artists in Zürich. In 1917 Arp's style of art changed to the familiar abstract, curvilinear forms of his later work. In 1924 Arp moved to Paris, where he was associated with the surrealists and produced painted wooden bas-reliefs and humorous cut-cardboard constructions. In the 1930s, Arp began to work in freestanding sculpture, carving and molding a variety of substances. An example of his smooth, biomorphic forms is Human Concretion (1935; cast stone version, 1949, Museum of Modern Art, New York City). He also worked at various times in gouache, collage, engraving, and lithography. Throughout his career, he wrote both poetry and essays. Arp was bilingual and called himself Jean when writing in French and Hans when writing in German. </text>
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<text>Arp, Jean</text>
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card_8774.xml
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<text>Arnolfo di Cambio (circa 1245-c. 1302), Italian late Gothic architect and sculptor, born near Siena. Following his apprenticeship to the sculptor Nicola Pisano, Arnolfo worked in Rome, Orvieto, and other cities, carving many tombs, altar canopies, and fountains. About 1294 he began work on Florence Cathedral; construction continued for over a century after his death. Arnolfo's sculptures for the cathedral facade, now dispersed to several museums, harmonize ancient Roman forms and late Gothic motifs in a style heralding the Renaissance. </text>
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<text>Arnolfo di Cambio</text>
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card_8533.xml
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<text>Arcimboldo, Giuseppe (circa 1530-93), Italian Mannerist painter, whose witty allegorical compositions foreshadowed 20th-century surrealist art. He began as a designer of stained glass and tapestry in his native Milan; in 1562 he moved to Prague and then to Vienna, where he became painter to the Habsburg court. Arcimboldo invented a portrait type consisting of painted foliage, flowers, fruit, and the like composed to form a human likeness. Some are satiric portraits of court personages, and others are allegorical personifications. </text>
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<text>Arcimboldo, Giuseppe</text>
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card_8317.xml
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<text>Archipenko, Alexander Porfiryevich (1887-1964), Russian-American sculptor, born in Kyyiv. He studied at the Kyyiv Art School and at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. He made Paris the center of his activities from 1908 to 1914; lived in Berlin from 1921 to 1923; and after 1923 made his home in the United States, where he taught and lectured at various colleges and universities. From 1939 to 1955 he conducted a private school of fine arts in New York City. Archipenko was an experimenter and innovator in sculpture, deriving abstract forms from the human figure in some of the earliest cubist sculptures known, such as Medrano (1915, Guggenheim Museum, New York City). He developed a style that relies for its effect on the emphasis given to concavities and negative spaces, or voids. </text>
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<text>Archipenko, Alexander Porfiryevich</text>
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card_8190.xml
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<text>Appia, Adolphe (1862-1928), Swiss artist, stage designer, and theorist, who pioneered modern staging and lighting techniques. His first publication, La Mise en scene du drame Wagnerien (The Staging of the Wagnerian Drama, 1895), set forth his innovative theories in precise staging and lighting plans for the major operas of the German composer Richard Wagner. In Music and the Art of the Theatre (1899; trans. 1962) Appia grouped his principles in two major categories—scenery and lighting. Scenery must be three dimensional and multileveled. Lighting must unify the stage picture, enhance the music, and underline the action; thus, it must be mobile, able to change and shift with the mood and action. Appia’s final work, L’oeuvre d’art vivant (The Living Work of Art, 1921), summarizes all his theories and experience; he reiterated that the designerdirector’s prime concerns are the actors, their movements, and their words. He illustrated all his works with evocative sketches.</text>
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<text>Appia, Adolphe</text>
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<text>Apollodorus (flourished 5th century bc), Athenian painter known as Skiagraphos (the “Shadow Painter”). By skillful use of light and shade he improved perspective and the modeling of figures in order to heighten the illusion of three-dimensional space. His innovations were further developed by Zeuxis. None of Apollodorus' works has survived. </text>
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<text>Apollodorus</text>
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<text>Apelles (flourished 352-308 bc), Greek painter, one of the most celebrated artists of the ancient world. Born in Colophon on the Ionian coast, he studied in Sicyon (now Sikion) under Pamphilus of Amphipolis. Apelles' works, characterized by a unique grace, are known only from literary descriptions, but they inspired Renaissance artists. The works include portraits of Philip of Macedon, his son Alexander the Great, and Alexander's generals, as well as mythological and allegorical scenes, such as Venus Anadyomene and Calumny, in which Ignorance, Suspicion, Envy, and other qualities are personified. According to a well-known anecdote, a cobbler detected a fault in the shoe of a figure painted by Apelles, who quickly rectified it. When the cobbler criticized the legs, however, Apelles exclaimed “Ne supra crepidam sutor judicaret,” advice immortalized as “Let the cobbler stick to his last.” </text>
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<text>Apelles</text>
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<text>Anuskiewicz, Richard (1930- ), American painter and printmaker of op art, whose geometric works seem to pulsate with black-and-white shapes or the interaction of violent color. Born in Erie, Pennsylvania, Anuskiewicz studied at the Cleveland Art Institute and at Yale University with Josef Albers, who was experimenting with squares of color. Among Anuskiewicz's paintings is Convexity II (1966, Sidney Janis Gallery, New York City). Later he produced three-dimensional painted cubes. </text>
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<text>Anuskiewicz, Richard</text>
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card_7091.xml
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<text> Angelico, Fra (circa 1400-55), Italian painter of the early Renaissance, who combined the life of a devout friar with that of an accomplished painter. He was called Angelico (Italian, “angelic”) and Beato (Italian, “blessed”) because the paintings he did were of calm, religious subjects and because of his extraordinary personal piety. In FiesoleOriginally named Guido di Pietro, Angelico was born in Vicchio, Tuscany. He entered a Dominican convent in Fiesole in 1418 and about 1425 became a friar using the name Giovanni da Fiesole. Although his teacher is unknown, he apparently began his career as an illuminator of missals and other religious books. He began to paint altarpieces and other panels; among his important early works are the Madonna of the Star (circa 1428-33, San Marco, Florence) and Christ in Glory Surrounded by Saints and Angels (National Gallery, London), which depicts more than 250 distinct figures. Among other works of that period are two of the Coronation of the Virgin (San Marco and Louvre, Paris) and a Deposition and Last Judgment (San Marco). His mature style is first seen in the Madonna of the Linen Weavers (1433, San Marco), which features a border with 12 music-making angels. In Florence and RomeIn 1436 the Dominicans of Fiesole moved to the convent of San Marco in Florence, recently rebuilt by Michelozzo. Angelico, sometimes aided by assistants, painted many frescoes for the cloister, chapter house, and entrances to the 20 cells on the upper corridors. The most impressive of these are the Crucifixion, Christ as a Pilgrim, and Transfiguration. His altarpiece for San Marco (circa 1439) is the first representation of the Sacred Conversation among the Madonna, angels, and saints. In 1445 Angelico was summoned to Rome by Pope Eugenius IV to paint frescoes for the now destroyed Chapel of the Sacrament in the Vatican. In 1447, with his pupil Benozzo Gozzoli, he painted frescoes for the cathedral in Orvieto. His last important works, frescoes for the chapel of Pope Nicholas in the Vatican, are Scenes from the Lives of Saints Stephen and Lawrence (1447-49), probably painted from his designs by assistants. From 1449 to 1452 Angelico was prior of his convent in Fiesole. He died in the Dominican convent in Rome on March 18, 1455. Angelico combined the influence of the elegantly decorative Gothic style of Gentile da Fabriano with the more realistic style of such Renaissance masters as the painter Masaccio and the sculptors Donatello and Ghiberti, all of whom worked in Florence. Angelico was also aware of Leon Battista Alberti's theories of perspective. Angelico's representation of devout facial expressions and his use of color to heighten emotion are particularly effective. His skill in creating monumental figures, representing motion, and suggesting deep space through the use of linear perspective, especially in the Roman frescoes, mark him as one of the foremost painters of the Renaissance. </text>
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<text>Angelico, Fra</text>
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card_6642.xml
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<text>Andrea del Sarto (1486-1530), Florentine painter of the High Renaissance, who made his reputation with a series of frescoes on the life of John the Baptist. Originally named Andrea Domenico d'Agnolo, Andrea was born on July 16, 1486. He studied painting under Piero di Cosimo and from about 1508 to about 1512 collaborated with Franciabigio (1482-1525). At about the same time, he was employed by the Servites, a religious brotherhood, to execute fresco decorations in their Church of the Sant' Annunziata at Florence. By 1510 he completed five scenes depicting events in the life of Filippo Benizzi (1233-85), founder of the Servite order. These works were widely acclaimed as examples of faultless painting in drawing, color, and light and shade. Many commissions followed, including the frescoes of St. John in the cloister of the Scalzi in Florence. Andrea's reputation became international, and in 1518 he was summoned to the court of Francis I of France, who entrusted him with money to purchase works of art in Italy. He returned to Florence in 1519, used the money for his own purposes, and remained in Florence, completing the fresco series in the cloister of the Scalzi. In 1525 he painted in the cloister of the Servite church the Madonna del Sacco, which is generally considered his masterpiece. He executed his last major work in fresco, the Last Supper (1527) in the refectory of the convent of San Salvi near Florence. He died on September 29, 1530. Andrea also painted numerous easel paintings, including portraits, such as those of his wife and of himself in the Pitti Palace, Florence; and religious subjects, such as the Madonna of the Harpies (1517, Uffizi Gallery, Florence). Among his other noted works are Pietà (1524, Pitti Palace) and Assumption (1530, Pitti Palace). The architect and painter Giorgio Vasari was his pupil. </text>
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<text>Andrea del Sarto</text>
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card_6224.xml
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<text>Andrea del Castagno (circa 1421-57), Florentine painter of the early Renaissance. Originally named Andrea di Bartolo di Bargilla, he was born in Castagno, near Florence. Except for a brief period in Venice about 1442, Andrea worked in Florence chiefly on frescoes for the church and for the Medici and other rich families. Particularly outstanding are the Last Supper and a series on the Passion of Christ painted for the convent of S. Apollonia (1445-50). The influence of the Florentine painter Masaccio is seen in Andrea's broad, solid figures and the emotional intensity expressed in both posture and face. The architectural backgrounds, including columns, stairs, and windows, display Andrea's skill in the then new science of perspective. Andrea's later work shows the increasing influence of the graceful sculpture of Donatello. This group includes Famous Men and Women, a series of nine works for the Villa Carducci at Legnaia (circa 1450, S. Apollonia) and the equestrian fresco Niccolò da Tolentino, a portrait of the military leader (1456, Florence Cathedral). </text>
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<text>Andrea del Castagno</text>
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card_5947.xml
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<text>Altdorfer, Albrecht (circa 1480-1538), German painter, architect, and engraver, considered the first landscape painter in Western art. Although his birthplace is unknown, he spent most of his life in Regensburg as city architect and life member of the city council. Altdorfer is important to the history of painting as a founder and leading master of the group of 16th-century German artists known as the Danube school. His pictures are characterized by an evocative imagination, ranging from the playful to the grandiose and from the picturesque to the fantastic. One of his best works is a great altarpiece (1518) in the monastery of Saint Florian in Enns, Austria, in which he used a number of night scenes, unusual for that time. In his huge painting called Battle of Alexander at Issus (1529) thousands of tiny figures in a wild, craggy landscape are seen from high in the air against a fiery sunset. It, and a number of his other major works, such as the exquisite little St. George in a Landscape (1510), are in Munich's Alte Pinakothek. Paintings by Altdorfer in the Berlin Museum include Repose on the Flight to Egypt (1510), Beggary Sitting on the Train of Pride (1531), and a Nativity (1512). Altdorfer's skill as a graphic artist entitles him to a place among the so-called Little Masters, a group of 16th-century German engravers noted for their expert execution of designs on a small scale. His graphic style was influenced by the German painter and engraver Albrecht Dürer. Altdorfer's prints include an outstanding series of 9 etched landscapes and a set of 40 engravings collectively called The Fall and Redemption of Man. </text>
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<text>Altdorfer, Albrecht</text>
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<text>Alma-Tadema, Sir Lawrence (1836-1912), English painter in the academic tradition. Born in Dronrijp, the Netherlands, and trained at the Academy of Antwerp, Belgium, he settled in England in 1869. His paintings are noted for fine detail, smooth finish, and the realistic representations of textures. Most of his works, such as A Roman Emperor (1871), depict idealized settings of ancient civilizations or medieval France. He joined the Royal Academy in 1879 and was knighted in 1899. </text>
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<text>Alma-Tadema, Sir Lawrence</text>
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<text>Allston, Washington (1779-1843), first major American landscapist who introduced the romantic painting style to the U.S. and foreshadowed the Hudson River school of artists. Born near Georgetown, South Carolina, Allston was educated at Harvard University, at London's Royal Academy, and in Paris and Italy. His paintings, from the vividly dramatic Rising of a Thunderstorm at Sea (1804) to the luminous serenity of Moonlit Landscape (1819), both in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, reveal his subjective interpretation of nature and his skill in conveying that vision. His historical scenes, such as The Deluge (1804, Metropolitan Museum, New York City) and the vast, unfinished Belshazzar's Feast (1817-43, Detroit Institute of Arts), are charged with fantasy. </text>
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<text>Allston, Washington</text>
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<text>Algardi, Alessandro (1595-1654), Italian baroque sculptor and architect, born in Bologna. He studied painting, but later turned to sculpture. He executed such marble groups as St. Philip Neri and the Angel for Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome and Beheading of St. Paul for San Paolo in Bologna. He succeeded Bernini as papal court sculptor in 1644; he designed the Villa Doria-Pamphili and a large bronze statue of Pope Innocent X (1574-1655), now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, both in Rome. In 1650 he completed the tomb of Pope Leo XI (1535-1605) and a huge bas-relief for the altar of Pope Leo I in Saint Peter's Basilica, Rome, representing Leo's confrontation with the warrior Attila the Hun. </text>
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<text>Algardi, Alessandro</text>
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<text>Aleijadinho, real name Antonio Francisco Lisboa (1738-1814), outstanding Brazilian rococo architect and sculptor. Aleijadinho (“Little Cripple”) suffered from a progressively disabling ailment, probably leprosy, that forced him to have his carving implements strapped to his forearms. His masterpieces, the 12 prophets, in soapstone, and 6 polychromed wood scenes of Christ's Passion that he carved (1800-5) for the Church of Bom Jesus de Matozinhos at Congonhas do Campo, are powerfully and superbly executed, with no evidence of his physical handicaps. </text>
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<text>Aleijadinho</text>
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<text>Alcamenes (flourished late 5th century bc), Greek sculptor, who was a pupil of the Athenian sculptor Phidias and subsequently became his artistic rival. Alcamenes was best known for the chryselephantine (gold and ivory) cult statues of Dionysus, Ares, and Hephaestus that he created for their Athenian shrines. These statues have been lost, but two surviving works in marble—Procne and Itys and Athena of the Gardens—in the Athens National Archaeological Museum, attest to his great skill. </text>
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<text>Alcamenes</text>
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<text>Albright, Ivan Le Lorraine (1897-1983), American painter of the magic realist school, who depicted in precise detail the vitality of decaying, moribund objects. Born in Chicago, Albright studied architecture, made surgical drawings for the U.S. Army, and attended the Art Institute of Chicago. He worked ten years on That Which I Should Have Done I Did Not Do (1941, Art Institute of Chicago), a painstaking delineation of a decrepit door, weathered funeral wreath, and decayed hand. Albright's morbid subjects aroused much controversy. </text>
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<text>Albright, Ivan Le Lorraine</text>
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<text>Albers, Josef (1888-1976), American painter, graphic artist, and influential teacher, who investigated color relationships in his geometrical abstractions. Born in Bottrop, Germany, Albers attended art schools in Berlin, Essen, and Munich. He then studied (1920-23) and taught design in the avant-garde Bauhaus (q.v.) for 10 years. He emphasized functionalism and suitability in modern design. After the Nazis closed the Bauhaus in 1933, Albers went to Black Mountain College, North Carolina, where he taught Bauhaus principles to his pupils, including the painter Robert Rauschenberg and the composer John Cage. When Yale University formed (1950) a department of design, Albers became its head, retiring from that position in 1958.Albers emphasized rectilinear shapes of strong, flat color. The interplay of hues heightened the nonrepresentational, purely optical effect of the forms. In the famous experimental Homage to the Square series (started in the early 1950s), progressively smaller forms help illustrate his theories of how changes in placement, shape, and light produce changes in color. Albers’ Interaction of Color (1963) is a basic text. His work influenced the op and minimal art of the 1960s.</text>
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<text>Albers, Josef</text>
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<text>Adams, Ansel Easton (1902-84), American photographer, whose photographs focus on the landscape in the American Southwest. Born in San Francisco and educated at Yale University, he was inspired by a 1916 trip to Yosemite, California, to photograph in black and white the majesty of the American wilderness. His pictures show raw mountains, harsh deserts, enormous clouds, and towering trees in sharp detail dramatized by light and shadow. Adams held his first exhibition in San Francisco in 1939. He started the first college department in photography and published the Basic Photo-Books series on technique. Collections of his photographs include Taos Pueblo (1930), Sierra Nevada (1948), This Is the American Earth (1960), and Yosemite and the Range of Light (1979). </text>
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<text>Adams, Ansel Easton</text>
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card_3725.xml
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<text>Abbott, Berenice (1898-1991), American photographer, famous for her magnificent documentation of New York City and for her pioneering camera work in the physical sciences. Born in Springfield, Ohio, Abbott studied sculpture in New York City and Paris before turning to photography in the mid-1920s at the suggestion of the American surrealist Man Ray. Through Ray she also encountered the great Parisian photographer Eugène Atget just before his death in 1927 and worked tirelessly to spread his fame. Returning to the United States in 1929, Abbott resolved to record New York City with a camera in the manner that Atget had recorded Paris; the result was her epic Changing New York (1939). From the 1940s to the 1960s Abbott used the camera to explore various phenomena of physics. </text>
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<text>Abbott, Berenice</text>
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card_3045.xml
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